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B,&LNu-W)K20, 8k8@ gJl&f"Nu , 8g"P 8 @/, 8Nf  8fQ 8J,'gNupB <``L@ H)l26)z @W , Jf`CfSHj-D@Hd0H@H 0H@0`fSC\fS , @a"C\fApNNNhHP?< NA\NuH@aa/a a Nu@0 9c^Nu| PC>$Error # ][Abort]\f.B &lX)K\)ld` lp ,BQjNup(NVYp-KNu"l`Yd&-KNN"l`YepN&#k"C-KN"Cփk փk2##`փk"`2`& $Y8gHRDD*D%H8#$c2g# HRDD%H`pr`&AdRd QJBgRBBABJk"l` d&6&|0!NuN"l` epZNC ҳfHP0(Np$W$RR@H`2Q"H _$l` dd" $X&0BP6Y&|Hg R@@%E ҳeHQ0)N$_$RR@H`2QNu$Y 0P1@Hg R@@%NuN$l` epZNpCNBpANr/-?CNdN`NqNqpCN"&<x*<NpJBgp/pCN"&<1x*<NpJBgp/pCN"&<2x*<NpJBgp/pCN"&<Dx*<NpJBgp/pCN"&<dx*<NpJBgp$fN&jN'pCN"zNpJBgp/pCN"&<@x*< NpJBgp/pCN"&< x*< NpJBgp/pCN"&<x*< NpJBgp/pCN"&<x*< NpJBgp$fN'2N'HxNfoThis program can only be run|from within main program of:| THE COMPUTER GUIDE | TO THE SOLAR SYSTEMHPNZ OK r"_ NA퀮N:A퀮N&<x*<NJBfN'NhpCN"&<1x*<NpJBgp/pCN"&< x*< NpJBgp$fN(XA퀄 0Npp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pWBg?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pN*pNDprNT+|pdANr <r$< N&<x*<NdN~? <r$<NN~?~N <r$<N&<x*<NdN~N߰N`NqNqtH <r$<HANfpN*pNDprNTN\pN߰pN*pNDprNTA z0 <r$<&<x*< AN:ANNfHmpMN"_N"g NXN,AN&<x*<N$JBfN*JpN߰N+FAN&<x*<NpJBgp/AN&<πx*<N$pJBgp/AN&<x*<NpJBgp/AN&<x*<N$pJBgp/AN&<@x*< NpJBgp/AN&<x*< N$pJBgp$fN+@pN߰N+FpN߰AN&<x*<N$pJBgp/AN&<x*<NpJBgp/AN&<x*<N$pJBgp/AN&<x*<NpJBgp/AN&<x*< N$pJBgp/AN&<@x*< NpJBgp/AN&<x*< N$pJBgp/AN&<x*< NpJBgp$fN,pdr7N8AN/AN&<x*<NN~"N <rNN,`0NqHmpMN"_N"JBfN,NpNpNpNpdr2N8pZ"<N <"< NA 0pN߰AN&<3338<4*<NdANANNfAN&<x*<NpJBgp/HmpMN"_N"pJBgp$VHgN1AN&<x*<N`ANAN&<x*<NL&< x*< N`N\ANAN&<x*< NdANAN&<x*<NLHAN&<x*<NLL8NdN\A$NANANNN&<x*<NFHNL8N&<x*<NFA*NAN&<x*<N$JBfN/,A*N&<z8<*<NF&<x*< NdA6NN/AN&<x*<NpJBgp/AN&<x*<N$pJBgp$fN/A*N&<=p8<*<NF&<x*< NdA6NN/A*N&<8<\*<NF&<x*< NdA6N <r$<NABNAN&<x*<NpJBgp/AN&<x*<N$pJBgp$fN0pN߰ "<tN <"<N8 <"<tNp"<N8NZ.Saturn, the sixth planet from the Sun, is sur-Ntp"<N8Nf-rounded by a system of rings so intricate and4Ntp "<N8Nf-dazzling, that the planet has been called the4Ntp)"<N8Nf/"most beautiful sight in the Solar System!" As4Ntp2"<N8Nf/the second-largest planet, Saturn is a slightly4NtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN9Np;"<N8Nf-smaller and more tranquil version of Jupiter.4Nt <"<N8Nf/Like Jupiter, it radiates more heat than it re-4Nt <"<N8Nf/ceives from the Sun. Also, Saturn's atmosphere4Nt <"<N8NZ.spawns large cyclonic storms. One in 1933 wasNt <"<N8NZ.almost as large as Jupiter's "Great Red Spot"!Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HANfHmpMN"_N"JBfN:NpNpNpNp"<N8p>"<tN <"<N8 <"<tNp"<N8Nf/But Saturn is farther from the Sun. Its colder4Ntp"<N8Nf/atmosphere is "quieter" and its storms are more4Ntp "<N8NZ0short-lived. Further, an upper-level haze tendsNtp)"<N8Nf/to hide much of the atmosphere below it, making4Ntp2"<N8NZ.Saturn's bands of circulation appear much lessNtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNNpNpNpNp"<N8p>"<tN <"<N8 <"<tNp"<N8NZ0if one could find a large enough cosmic ocean inNtp"<N8Nf/which to place the ringed wonder. The planet's4Ntp "<N8NZ0low density results in a surface gravity that isNtp)"<N8NZ0low considering Saturn's immense size. In fact,Ntp2"<N8NZ.Saturn has a lower surface gravity than Earth!NtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN@xNp;"<N8Nf/Thus its rapid spin makes the planet bulge con-4Nt <"<N8Nf/siderably at its equator, moreso than any other4Nt <"<N8NZ,planet! As we shall see shortly, it is thisNt <"<N8Nf/equatorial bulge caused by Saturn's low density4Nt <"<N8Nf-which helps to produce its magnificant rings.4Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HANfHmpMN"_N"JBfNBbNpNpNpNp"<N8p>"<tN <"<N8 <"<tNp"<N8NZ0Saturn posseses at least 21 moons, more than anyNtp"<N8Nf/other planet! Some of these are among the most4Ntp "<N8Nf/intriguing bodies in the Solar System. For in-4Ntp)"<N8Nf/stance, Titan is larger than Mercury and Pluto,4Ntp2"<N8NZ0and has a true atmosphere. Some scientists evenNtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfND4Np;"<N8Nf-suggest that life may be found on Titan! The4Nt <"<N8NZ.two moons known as 1980-S3 and 1980-S1 dance aNt <"<N8Nf/cosmic waltz around Saturn, actually exchanging4Nt <"<N8Nf-their orbits in mid-step! And the "shepherd"4Nt <"<N8Nf/moons help to maintain Saturn's ring structure!4Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HANfHmpMN"_N"JBfNFNpNpNpNp"<N8p>"<tN <"<N8 <"<tNpN߼pNpNpNpdr2N8pZr2N|pNpNpNpdr2N8pZr2N|ANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNFNpNpNpNpdr/N8p'rN|pNpNpNpdr/N8prN|ANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNGJNpdr/N8pN < "<N>pNpNpNpbr'N8p N"pN߰ANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNGNpbr'N8p NDANfHmpMN"_N"JBfNGN?<?<tA"N>?<?<|A"N>?<?<A"N>p"<VN8NfTHE STRUCTURE OF SATURN4Ntp"<N8NZ.Despite its lower density, Saturn has a struc-Ntp "<N8NZ.ture very similar to Jupiter. Composed mostlyNtp)"<N8NZ0of hydrogen and helium, Saturn possesses a smallNtp2"<N8NZ.iron-rich rocky core surrounded by a vast zoneNtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNINp;"<N8NZ0of "liquid metallic hydrogen". But this zone isNt <"<N8NZ0proportionally smaller than that of Jupiter, dueNt <"<N8NZ0to Saturn's lower mass and weaker gravity. EvenNt <"<N8NZ0so, it manages to produce a magnetic field 1,000Nt <"<N8NZ times stronger than the Earth's!Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HANfHmpMN"_N"JBfNKpNpNpNpNp"<N8p>"<tN <"<N8 <"<tNp"<N8Nf-Above Saturn's zone of liquid metallic hydro-4Ntp"<N8NZ,gen lies an immense "spherical ocean" of mo-Ntp "<N8NZ.lecular hydrogen, still compressed to a liquidNtp)"<N8NZ0state. This is surrounded by Saturn's thick at-Ntp2"<N8Nf/mosphere, where prevailing winds with speeds of4NtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNM:NA퀄N&<x*<NJBfNMp;"<N8Nf/1,450 km/h have been detected near the planet's4NtNMp;"<N8NZ.900 mph have been discovered near the planet'sNt <"<N8Nf/equator! As on Jupiter, Voyager 2 verified the4Nt <"<N8Nf-existence of vast aurorae on Saturn, some two4Nt <"<N8NZ.to five times more energetic than those of theNt <"<N8Nf'Earth's "Northern and Southern Lights".4Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HANfHmpMN"_N"JBfNONpNpNpNp"<N8p>"<tN <"<N8 <"<tNANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNPNpdr2N8pZr2N|ANfHmpMN"_N"JBfNP:N?<?<tA"N>?<?<|A"N>?<?<A"N>?< ?<?<?<>A" N ?< ?<Z?<v?<A" N pN*pNDprNTpN߰pdr2N8pZ"<N <rNpr N8p>"<N <"<N8NZB RingNt <"<ZN8NZC RingNt <"<(N8NZD RingNt <"<N8NfCassini4Nt <"<N8NZDivisionNt <"< N8NfEncke4Nt <"< N8NZDivisionNt <"<N8NZA RingNtpN"<&N8NZF RingNtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNRBNpN߰?<?<?<?<~N?<T?<?<J?<~N?<"?<?<?<~N?<X?<K?<a?<K~N?<?<?<?<~N?<P?<?<Z?<~N?<'?<?<.?<~NpN*pNDprNTpN߰?<0?<?<0?<d~N?<?<?<?<d~N?<L?<?<L?<d~N?<?<?<?<d~N?<?<?<?<p~N?<\?<?<\?<g~N?<c?<K?<c?<b~NANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNSNpN߰?<.?<?<.?<d~N?<?<?<?<d~N?<J?<?<J?<d~N?<?<?<?<d~N?<?<?<?<p~N?<Z?<?<Z?<g~N?<a?<K?<a?<b~Np"<N8NfTHE RINGS OF SATURN4NtprN8NZHThough rings are now known to exist around other planets, none can matchNtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNUNp rN8NZJthe awesome beauty of Saturn's rings. Composed of rock, dust and ice par-Ntp)rN8NfIticles, as small as dust specks to as large as a car, the rings exhibit a4Ntp2rN8NfIdefinite intricate structure. The A and B rings are brightest and can be4Ntp;rN8NZLseen from Earth, bisected by the Cassini Division. The C ring is faint. . .Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HANfHmpMN"_N"JBfNWNpNpNpNprN8p>"<tNprN8NfIand is only visible through powerful telescopes. The neighboring almost-4NtprN8NZJtransparent D ring stretches down to Saturn's surface! The A-D rings con-Ntp rN8NZJstitute the main rings, and consist of thousands of concentric "ringlets"!NtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNXfNp)rN8NZJBut the small F ring has few components; and these are braided! InitiallyNtp2rN8NfIthis seemed to defy the laws of orbital mechanics. But now it is thought4Ntp;rN8NZHthat the gravities of two "shepherd moons" braid the F ring like a rope!Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HANfHmpMN"_N"JBfNYNpNpNpNprN8p>"<tN <"<N8 <"<tNpdr2N8pZr2N|ANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNZzN?< ?<ZA"N>?<?<tA"N>?<?<|A"N>?<?<A"N>pNpN"<&N8NZF RingNtpN߰pN*pNDprNT?<X?<K?<a?<K?<a?<Z~NpN߰ANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN[LNA p0 <r$<ANANNfHmpMN"_N"g NXN\ <"<GN8AN/ANvNfN~"N <rN <"<'N8AN/ANvNfN~"N <"<NN`TNqHmpMN"_N"JBfN\@NpNpNpN <"<GN8pN" <"<N8pN" <"<'N8pN"ANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN\NA p0 <r$<ANANNfHmpMN"_N"g NXN] <"<GN8AN/ANvNfN~"N <"<N <"<'N8AN/ANvNfN~"N <rNN`TNqHmpMN"_N"JBfN]N?<?<?<?<~NpN߰?<?<?<?<~NANfHmpMN"_N"JBfN^NpNprN8NZHBecause Saturn is tilted in its orbit, we see its rings oriented at dif-NtprN8NfKferent angles in various parts of its orbit. For example, roughly every 154Ntp rN8NfIyears, we see the rings "edge-on" and they are almost invisible. This is4NtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN_RNp)rN8NfKbecause the rings are so thin. In fact, 99% of the ring material lies in a4Ntp2rN8NfIzone only as thick as the Statue of Liberty is high. Thus the rings have4Ntp;rN8NZHthe proportions of a circular sheet of paper the size of a soccer field!Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HANfHmpMN"_N"JBfN`NpNpNpNprN8p>"<tN <"<N8 <"<tNpNpNpN <"<N8pr"<tN <"<N8 <"<tN <"<,N8 <"<tN <"<N8 <"<Np}"<N8 <"<vNANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNfdN?< ?<A"N>pNpNpNpA"<N8p N"pA"<DN8p N"pN߰pN*pNDprNT?<?<A?<?< ~N?<D?<A?<D?< ~NANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNgNpNpNpNpA"<N8pN"pA"<DN8pN"ANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNg|NpN߰pN*pNDprNT?<?<A?<?<:~N?<D?<A?<D?<8~Np "<N8NZSunlitNtp("<N8NZ SideNtp "<N8NZ DarkNtp("<N8NZ SideNtA퀄N&<x*<NJBfNhp;"<N8NZ-179CNtp="<N8NZ-181CNtNhp;"<N8NZ-290FNtp="<N8NZ-294FNtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNhNp"<N8NZSATURN'S SURFACENtp#"<N8Nf TEMPERATURE4Nt <"<N8Nf/Like the other gas giants which rotate rapidly, Nt <"<N8NZ.Saturn's heat is distributed very efficiently.NtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNiN <"<N8NZ.The difference between the temperatures of itsNt <"<N8NZ0sunlit side and dark side is only a few degrees.Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HANfHmpMN"_N"JBfNkNNN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pN߰pN*pNDprNT?<?< ?<s?<l~NpNpNpNp:"<N8pdN"ANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNkNpN߰A 0 <r$<ANANNfHmpMN"_N"g NXNlhAN&<x*<NdN~/AN&<x*<N&<x*<NdN~"N8pdN"N`xNqHmpMN"_N"JBfNlNpN*pNDprNTpN߰Bg?<?<@?<]~NpN*pNDprNTpN߰Bg?<?<@?<b~NpN*pNDprNTpN߰pN*pNDprNT <r$<&<x*<N`N~/ <r$<&<x*<NdN~"N8 <r$<&<x*<NdN~/ <r$<&<x*<N`N~"NANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNmNpN߼pNpNpN <"<N8p N"pNpNpNpT"<N8prN|ANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNnZNpN*pNDprNTpN߰ <"<N8pND <"<N8 <"<NpN߼pNpNpNpN< <"<N8NfEARTH4Nt <"<N8Nf Volume: 14Nt <"<N8Nf Mass: 14Nt <"<N8Nf Gravity: 14Nt <"<N8Nf Inclination: 23.54Ntp}r5N8NZSATURNNtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNoNA퀄N&<x*<NJBfNpL <"<N8NZ Diameter: 12,756 kmNt <rN8NZDiameter: 120,000 kmNtNp <"<N8Nf Diameter: 7,926 mi4Nt <rN8NfDiameter: 74,566 mi4NtpN߼pNpNpNpN< <rN8NfVolume: 752.004Nt <rN8NfMass: 95.154Nt <rN8NfGravity: .714Nt <rN8NfInclination: 26.734NtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNqNp"<N8NfSATURN: Compared to Earth4Ntp"<TN8Nf%Though slightly smaller than Jupiter,Ntp"<TN8Nf#Saturn is still immense compared to4Ntp("<TN8NZ"the Earth. Flattened more than anyNtp2"<TN8NZ"other planet by its rapid spin andNtp<"<TN8Nf#low density, Saturn could hold over4NtpF"<TN8Nf#750 Earths in its volume! Plus, it4NtpP"<TN8Nf%is a massive planet, though its rings4NtpZ"<TN8NZ$only contribute a mass equal to thatNtANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNsNpd"<TN8Nf!of a small moon to Saturn. As we4Ntpn"<TN8NZ$have already seen, the ringed wonderNtpx"<TN8NZ$is less dense than water. ThereforeNt <"<TN8NZ$its surface gravity is actually lessNt <"<TN8NZ$than that of Earth, despite Saturn'sNt <"<TN8Nf%greater size and mass. Regardless of4Nt <"<TN8Nf%all these differences, Saturn has al-4Nt <"<TN8Nf#most the same inclination as Earth.4Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HANfHmpMN"_N"JBfNv NNpp@pW?<?<NN\pN߼pN߰pN*pNDprNT?<%?<?<]?<~N?<?<?<?<~NpK"<N8pF"<N < "<NpK"<N8prNpNpNpNpK"<N8pN" <"<_N8pN" <"<N8pN"ANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNwBNpNpNpNpK"<N8pN" <"<N8pN"pK"<_N8pL"<aNpNpNpN <"<_N8pN"pK"<_N8pN"ANNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNwNpK"<N8pND <"<N8pNDpNpNpNpN&<x*<NdvNfA`NA`NvNfAHNN`AfN <r$<ANNN`AlNA`NvNfAHNNdArNANN&<x*<NdAxNpNpNpNAfN/AlN"N8ArN/AxN"NATNN߰pN*pNDprNTAfN/AlN"N8ArN/AxN"NJAZNNpNpNpNAfNNArNNBpJBgp/NN>AlNNAxNNBpJBgp/NN>&<x*<NpJBgp$fNXpNpN߼AfN&<x*<NdN~/AlN"N8 <r$<ArNN`N~/AxN"Np NAfN&<x*<NdN~/AlN"N8 <r$<ArNN`N~/AxN"NpN߼A~ 0NUgNtpMNCNrHmpMN"_N"gNA~N&<x*<NJBgBmpN*pNDprNTNpN߰pN*pNDprNTNC퀺NrA퀺NBC퀺NrNUgNpMNC퀺NrHmpMN"_N"JBfN:NJprN8 <"<NJNC퀺NrA퀺NBC퀺NrNUgNpMNC퀺NrHmpMN"_N"JBfNNJpN߰pN*pNDprNTprN8 <"<yNJNC퀺NrA퀺NBC퀺NrNUgNpMNC퀺NrHmpMN"_N"JBfN4NJ?<?<?<y?<~NNNC퀺NrA퀺NBC퀺NrNUgNpMNC퀺NrN\NLA퀢NLA퀜NA CNrHmpN "_N,HPpN "_N,CNrHmpN "_N,CNrHmA퀜NN "_N,CNrHmA퀢NN "_N,CNRA CNrA CNrB +|pANrN4A퀨NHmA퀨NN "_N,CNrN`NqNq+| pA NrN4A퀨NHmA퀨NN "_N,CNrN`NqNqHmA"_N,HPA"_N,CNrANLNNh&H0380&H07c0&H07c0&H0fe0&H0fe0&H1ff0&H1ff0&H1ff0&H3ff8&H7ffc&H7ffc&Hfffe&Hfffe&Hfffe&Hfffe&Hcfe6&H0000&H0100&H0100&H0380&H0380&H07c0&H07c0&H07c0&H07c0&H17d0&H37d8&H37d8&H77dc&H610c&H4384&H0000&`ZDn $ >ftPFjRxJJ~$LP\,Br\* Z* 8"tv6j<>>~0 2ZN$^  H& :j@&(B(\(D`x R` Efv*oM m HPHUBg?<JNA(m)m -:gS)@ -OK1PC#HNHx?<HNA@)@l/?<HNA)@h&@)@XЬl)@d)@`ARCpr Ѝ"QHNFALNHz2?< NA\pdAxr0XQ)K\NNvn~~JrBjNuHz?<&NN\NpCAp$L Qp N\9lrBlJpNN\pMN\9@pdAr 0Q0tr N9lN4Nupealp`NuaNJHz?<&NNBWNANC2A@p222NrҌ0<NB0,rNurA9Ar`v C9Cr`rt9@9A9BNrrҌpsNB0,Nu9@N`rDҌpsNBNuC2 @ e @}bA@p222Nr,Ҍ0<NBNu pa4|a@:>< |a6RGk0Gg`a(0GVfA1G<ap??<?<NM\Nu??< NMXNu&8*:EENuHn 2$4BBNuAd RdQRB BbABJk 0NuJBjBBXNu 0Nu 2$NuE`B<gJEgEjCDEDF Fe( F dF8BCHC` F0bFHC8v` HD8HDkDуdQRBNuDdBDA@kgAр[SBk0NuJlJBk&Nu0g H@rB JkЀ[` BbNuJBj prtNuHPAJgPpr$< _Nup _NtNu&8*JEgJBgJjBEB:HC҅H@:|ۆ҄ۆ<HC>H@ЃdHA@B@H@хk HAҁHAрSB BbNuNpNNuCDEJEgJBgJjBEBQ*HE?<>0rHGGdHGGdSWDуdi\?<>0rHGGdHGGdSWDуdiN?<>0rHGGdHGGdSW2 H@N?<,>CEdGH@0r`?<`JBgVB&8TTDуdQRBNuDAр&AdRAрAрDуNuprt|=|  g +g -f .g20  b 0e 9b da`RF` .f 0e 9b dajSF` Eg efX +g -f 0e 9oSH`00  b&Hz0  b E Do`HJjDDDS4</NJFkSFk&aQN`Ha"FFaQL8N6.JgtBnNupr$<NuJBk4<rpAC v JBgJjv-| Bb BkH>aaNRFBdL8?N<JBga2SF Be BgQRB`ApdR e <rRF&0xafEv+0JFjDFv-Hƌd0BFHF 0HF0ANuprt|`2:HQ A dJBgB*#E8#&#Jjh`,J]o6\`6 c 2$4BBN>*#8#&#Jk:JkִEffDbAeABJk0!NuRdQRB`JjҺBf̶fȸA` c 2$4BB*#[8#&#NB*#8#&#JBgJjEJjL`Ja:Jo\`Jk:JkEffDbAeABJk0!NukDNuQRB`JjҺBf̶fȸA`p`pN @ddAgH`p`p9@(9@*BlNuNCpNEN`&(*NN$NJ@jD@vqapvN)@p `H@)@prtNAHplrtNB 2pNpNpapaprapalpalpalpaTpaTpaTBp'a?<NNT@B){L9|0<rtNpapap9@p`pvNv`v`vj`v `v`v`v`?Aa*` Al 2l 4)lVH)lRprtNAl 2l 4HVNuAl 2l 4L VA0000000000prtN9Cp rtNAv` Av `Avl 2l 4)lVHN&A VB0BP9|p tNaBp0,l 2Nua40,HNua*p0,l 4Nuaprt0,l 22,l 44,NuN9||BlBlrҌpsNBNu?<NNT$g4<rЀ[Nu@((?<NN.?<NNX@LvA HA HNuNup9@HA)A,N FN0 @e024E$ Bb5B5A6CC5CK5CAB008:Dk`Ek\00<,>,SFSGFnHGnDDDk9DBlDEk9EBlFcllGcll0,lb 0,lcNupmrtA)HA)HNpNHHPN 4 _:8><DbFEbGCHP@dʾAdBD2ƞE29|C???FF22N23BRG0@\@N"2)IN(* 9AJA)H@@[000][ˈN0 Evz`* [g" ]g |g QSz` zQSpQ][ɈN0 Dvx`* [g" ]g |g QSx` xQSpQ]Bp4N\HNuN0AH2 @erp0QtpoNNr|<N0 @xepw2A$JBjDFHB t`0QBl9F)lVTAtp 9| NA R4RB`A Gf //o~4$_<F"OSG !H@Ь 2 Q)@RHRprN2(g"P@g2RADAH""l`r2oZAe 1@#)I`Nuk1@Nup NN"l`dpNAtrdJhk\QpaNH ld$l`"Hg0 k&@ S`g k#&@0+S@H3 Q&f)I`LNu?<?<NAXJgJgNAH@B pNA NuApNA0pNN$Np$BS@kH2QNupC ұd"X0Pg"RA$D#Nu"X0Nu _0HpN _0HpNE ұeHHQ0)N$_$ZR@H`2QNu$Y0gHR@@"D%$X0P2g# R@%NupE $ $X0dP.gRG,D%pr Y2dP.gRG,D!p4Ae4v`VfANuNWHNu(* 0(iNp$E 4R`Q$D 4R`QˈN0 DN0 ENua NuN0 IHPg"B  g &gNJBjt BNut`Rptr ae OgT Xgj HgSRB ae Fb$0k  c_  c b退`tSJBkNRB0 b b瀀`RB0 fрd`pC 0(gFd"P$I` *Np$E$R(S@jv A(Wf( ae zb Q DNuH&NlրNljNuHpx$ ld$l`"Hg8" &Ak eѐ S`g"" k#&Aeё2+SAI3 Q&f)I`LNu$Nq Y Qf*d ЀЀ 2$4BBNuVHRp` HRpJQfpNh$_& Y Qf d փփABJk 0NNTNN~,Nq8DRzXEEg"7PNqR$HBJBgpNJgJigp`eetЂ`"ЀeЁdp`ЀeЀe"Ѕe$W.H@@/ l\N NDL"2` NqR YEjrd0` SjN" KC`e N`d \Nz l\Ӭ\ NupNd d3 d# d# # d# # # # d# # # # # # # # dB` # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # QNuC l ", Ⲭ dfѬ SA 0! Nup"NNNrJfNup#`p`pNu)H9@Jp4N\P'J&f H LNu P&NuQ'` J,'fJ,&gHA#ȇeC! B,&LNu-W)K20, 8k8@ gJl&f"Nu , 8g"P 8 @/, 8N  8fQ 8J,'gNupB <``L@ H)l26)z @W , Jf`CfSHj-D@Hd0H@H 0H@0`fSC\fS , @a"C\fApNNNFHP?< NA\NuH@aa/a a Nu@0 9c^Nu| PC>$Error # ][Abort]\f.B &lX)K\)ld` lp ,BQjNup(NV)l g,vARC( g9CJ9|Lp!,N\ FPeNu0A JpBQA/)H )l gBlJpN\B Aprt0 0BBB R@ @efA000 0PB0 *00 000\0X0 *0000 0P0BX0, *@00p1| 1|QBX0 $HTH0P &0 *0,NupNSk [0NupNuHPaH8 _&X Pf/|~ K!zag @ ep 24C"2 S@ػ Td BTA3A0C4$I2a222B"0@2A\xvaRg<2#M 4B3BS@ -f ػ Td>BAAb8RGRC`3RSG5GC5C J1DcaRF F e`RG GcdNuXASF1F41R 1h4 x1EDgVA)H)H 9|J?<NNTU@g,ACg dRhdRh(gpL8N\p>L8Np)@JphN\LtH &JKBCH .A/~0 1PP1P1PA L? &<@>AFG0000X0000X0000X0000C ~AJ0g0  pi, N\"F QNuYp-KNu"l`Yd&-KNN"l`YepN&#k"C-KN"Cփk փk2##`փk"`2`& $Y8gHRDD*D%H8#$c2g# HRDD%H`pr`&AdRd QJBgRBBABJk"l` d&6&|0!NuN"l` epZNC ҳfHP0(Np$W$RR@H`2Q"H _$l` dd" $X&0BP6Y&|Hg R@@%E ҳeHQ0)N$_$RR@H`2QNu$Y 0P1@Hg R@@%NuN$l` epZNpC~NBnpAnN/-n?pMN"_N"JBfN&tNMpNpNpNA[NHm>pMN"_N"JBfN&NMAcHNHm>pMN"_N"JBfN&NMpNpNpNp("<,Npd"<XN@Bm <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAjNHm>pMN"_N"JBfN'NMNpNpNpNpNpNpNpNp"<NNf= Helium + Energy 4"<NvprrNNZ 4 ProtonsNtp?r"NNf' + = +4Ntp?"<Np+NNtp?"<Np+NNtA 0 <r$<&<x*<ANAN??<,A"N>N`NqNq?<n?<,A2"N>?<?<,A "N>pNpNpNpNpm"<NNfTHE PROTON-PROTON CYCLE Ntp{rNNZHThe nuclear fusion process by which the Sun produces its energy is a se-Nt <rNNfIries of 3 collisions between atomic particles. Called the "proton-proton4Nt <rNNZHcycle", it is the process by which 4 hydrogen nuclei (protons) are fusedNt <rNNZHinto one helium nucleus, releasing energy. The steps in the process areNt <rNNZFnot of equal interval because there is a different probability of eachNt <rNNfGcollision occurring. In fact, given a single proton, the likelihood is4Nt <rNNZDthat it will make the first type of collision only once in 7 billionNt <rNNZHyears! Yet, since the number of protons in the Sun is so enormous . . .Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAjNHm>pMN"_N"JBfN,NMpdrN <"<N@pNpnrNNf9the fusion process continues constantly and steadily. . ..Nt <rNNZFLet us now examine this nuclear cycle of the Sun, this fusion reactionNt <rNNZHwhich is a close relative of the explosive processes of a hydrogen-bomb.Nt <rNNZFWe must first enter the sub-microscopic world of atomic nuclei deep inNt <rNNfESun's core. Here the temperature is measured in millions of degrees,4Nt <rNNZDso hot that atoms of hydrogen and helium have been stripped of theirNt <rNNf?orbiting electrons and wander through the core unattended . . .4Nt <rNNZ2Watch closely! Nuclear events occur VERY QUICKLY!Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAjNHm>pMN"_N"JBfN/NMNpNpNpNAMNHm>pMN"_N"JBfN0&NFAXNpNpNpN <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNfRERUN 1st COLLISION4HPNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAnNHm>pMN"_N"gN12pNpNpNNA$N&<x*<N2JBgHm>pMN"_N"JBfN1RNMpNpNpNA[NHm>pMN"_N"JBfN1NFAa N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNfRERUN 2nd COLLISION4HPNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAnNHm>pMN"_N"gN2pNpNpNNA$N&<x*<N2JBgHm>pMN"_N"JBfN2NMpNpNpNAcHNHm>pMN"_N"JBfN2NFAh2N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNfRERUN 3rd COLLISION4HPNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAnNHm>pMN"_N"gN3pNpNpNNA$N&<x*<N2JBgHm>pMN"_N"JBfN3NMNA퀺 0NZ C>NrAMNHm>pMN"_N"pJBgp/Hm>pAN"_N"pJBgp$fN4jN5FpNpNpNA[NHm>pMN"_N"pJBgp/Hm>pAN"_N"pJBgp$fN4N5FAcHNHm>pMN"_N"pJBgp/Hm>pAN"_N"pJBgp$fN5N5FpNpNpNp"<N <"<N@Hm>pMN"_N"pJBgp/Hm>pAN"_N"pJBgp$VHgN5`Hm>pMN"_N"JBfN5NMNpNBg?<A"N>Bg?<VA"N>?<?<2A"N>?<?<]A"N>?<?<0A"N>?<?<EA"N>?<?<A"N>?<m?<5A,"N>?<?<]A,"N>?<?<dA "N>?<?<ZA "N>?<?<)A "N>?<?<5A2"N>pNpNpNprN?<,?<b?<l?<A~N?<?<-?<?<~N?<?<pNpNpNp0"<=NpN\pG"<=NpN\ <"<rNpN\ <"<$N <"<&N@pNpNpN <"<rNpN\ <"<$N <"<&N@pNpNpN <"<rN <"<tN@ <"<NNZProtonNt <"<NNfNeutron4Nt <"<NNZElectronNt <"<5NNZPositronNt <"<5NNZNeutrinoNt <"<5NNf Gamma Ray4NtpNpNpNpN <rNNfPROTON-PROTON CYCLE4Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAjNHm>pMN"_N"JBfN;BNM <rN <"<N@pNpNpNpN <rNNfGThe net effect of each proton-proton cycle is that 4 hydrogen nuclei 4Nt <rNNZH(protons) are converted into one helium nucleus. However the helium nu-Nt <rNNfGcleus is only 99.3 percent as massive as 4 protons! Where then is the 4Nt <rNNfGmissing mass? It has been converted to energy in the form of the gamma4Nt <rNNZFrays and neutrino which were the end-products of the three collisions.Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAjNHm>pMN"_N"JBfN=NM <rN <"<N@pN <rNNZHThe energy, converted from the missing mass, has been produced accordingNt <rNNZDto Einstein's famous equation: E = mc. The neutrino produced is soNt <rNNfInon-reactive that it quickly passes out of the Sun and into space. Mean-4Nt <rNNfGwhile, the gamma rays will continue to bounce around the solar interior4Nt <rNNZFfor thousands to millions of years, before reaching the Sun's surface!Nt <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAjNHm>pMN"_N"JBfN@BNMNpNAwNHmPpMN"_N"JBfN@vNM?<k?<9?<k?<5?<u?<N*`pNqHmPpMN"_N"JBfNANMprpMN"_N"JBfNFNMprpMN"_N"JBfNI~NMpr"<NpN\?<?<2?<?<FA" N pN?<?<k?<?<g?<?<k?<?<b?<?<g?<?<]?<?<a?<?<]~N?<?<K?<"?<}A" N ?<O?<?<Q?<?<Q?<?<O?<~N?<M?<?<W?<A" N pN?<?<1?<?<1?<?<0?<?<0~N?<?<0?<?<5A" N pN?<?<E?<?<E?<?<F?<?<F~N?<?<C?<?<GA" N pNpNpNprN <"<N@A퀺N&<x*<N2JBfNP|pN <"<NNf+Press "A" or LEFT MOUSE BUTTON to Continue.4NtAN&<x*<N2JBfNQ pNpNpNpN <"<NNfThe Solar Nuclear Cycle4"<hNv?<?<?<?<Ah" N pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pNpNpNprNpN\Bg?<?<?<"A" N Bg?<?<?<(A" N BmBnp"<AnNNC>NrA>NBC>NrNSgNRpANC>NrNUgNR pMNC>NrHm>pMN"_N"pJBgp/Hm>pAN"_N"pJBgp$VHg NNS(?-pAN&<8<*<N$&<x*<NBN?A"N>?-pAN&<8<*<N$&<x*<N>N?A"N> <r$<&<x*<NANNBANND`NqHm>pMN"_N"pJBgp/Hm>pAN"_N"pJBgp$fNSpNNXRpNpNpNprN <"<N@N4pp@pWBg?<NN\pNN4pp@pWBg?<NN\?<?<2A"N>Bm Bm+|΁rp"<ArNNC>NrA>NBC>NrNSgNTFpANC>NrNUgNTbpMNC>NrHm>pMN"_N"pJBgp/Hm>pAN"_N"pJBgp$VHg NNV -rNHA N&<x*<N$L8NBN?AN&<x*<N>N?A"N>A NN&<x*<NBN?A N&<x*<NBN?A"N>A NN&<x*<N>N?A N&<x*<N>N?A"N>AN&<x*<NBANpN <r$<&pMN"_N"pJBgp/Hm>pAN"_N"pJBgp$fNVRNNXRpNpNpNpa"<Npx"<N@N4pp@pWBg?<NN\pNN4pp@pWBg?<NN\A f0NC>NrA>NBC>NrNSgNWpANC>NrNUgNW pMNC>NrHm>pMN"_N"pJBgp/Hm>pAN"_N"pJBgp$VHgNXRAN?AN&<x*<N>vN&<x*<NBN?A"N>AN&<x*<N>N? <r$<ANN>vN&<x*<NBN?A"N>AN&<x*<NBANAN&<x*< N|JBg|AN&<x*<N2JBfNX?<?<Ah"N>NXHm>pAN"_N"JBfNXN?<?<2A"N>N pNpqrNNfGThe "proton-proton cycle" begins when, once in 7 billion years, a given4Ntp{rNNfGproton (red) will collide with another proton with the proper energy to4Nt <rNNZHbind to it. 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Nup"NNNJfNup#`p`pNu)H9@Jp4NdP'J&f H LNu P&NuQ'` J,'fJ,&gHA#ȇeC! B,&LNu-W)K20, 8k8@ gJl&f"Nu , 8g"P 8 @/, 8Nf  8fQ 8J,'gNupB <``L@ H)l26)z @W , Jf`CfSHj-D@Hd0H@H 0H@0`fSC\fS , @a"C\fApNNNNHP?< NA\NuH@aa/a a Nu@0 9c^Nu| PC>$Error # ][Abort]\f.B &lX)K\)ld` lp ,BQjNup(NVYp-KNu"l`Yd&-KNN"l`YepN&#k"C-KN"Cփk փk2##`փk"`2`& $Y8gHRDD*D%H8#$c2g# HRDD%H`pr`&AdRd QJBgRBBABJk"l` d&6&|0!NuN"l` epZNC ҳfHP0(N$W$RR@H`2Q"H _$l` dd" $X&0BP6Y&|Hg R@@%E ҳeHQ0)NJ$_$RR@H`2QNu$Y 0P1@Hg R@@%NuN$l` epZN"X0gBPHR@@"D#Nu,jJj `BffAgb Jj 2$NuJjNupCNBpA킄NJ/-?\Nxpxr(NVNFAn Annular Eclipse is a special kind of Partial Solar Eclipse. Since N <r(NVNEthe Moon's orbit is an ellipse or oval, the Moon is sometimes farther4N <r(NVNDfrom the Earth than at other times. If a Solar Eclipse happens whenN <r(NVNEthe Moon is farthest from the Earth, its umbra does not reach all the4NN CNAN~CNNUgN?pMN:CNHmpMN:"_N^JBfN@Nx <r(NVNEway down to the Earth's surface. Look closely above, and notice that4N <r(NVNDnow the umbra is not touching the Earth! Thus, even though the MoonN <r(NVNCis directly between the Earth and the Sun, only the Moon's penumbra4N <r(NVNfalls on the Earth. . . N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA׌NfHmpMN:"_N^JBfNANxpNpNpNpnr&NV <"<vNpNpN pNpNZpxr(NVNDAt these times, when the Moon is farthest from the Earth, the Moon'sN <r(NVNFapparent diameter in the sky will be smaller than the Sun's apparent NN CNAN~CNNUgNC pMN:CNHmpMN:"_N^JBfNC*Nx <r(NVNGdiameter. Thus, even when the Moon is exactly in front of the Sun, the4N <r(NVNFSun's outer rim will remain visible. Like a bright, shining ring, theN <r(NVNGSun's outer portions will surround the black disc of the Moon. This 4N <r(NVNCgives us the name Annular (meaning "ring-like") Eclipses. Annular 4N <r(NVNAeclipses happen slightly more often than do Total Solar Eclipses.4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA׌NfHmpMN:"_N^JBfNEvNxpNpNpNpL"<NVpd"<Np"<NVp*"<vNBgBg?<?<xA." 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B,&LNu-W)K20, 8k8@ gJl&f"Nu , 8g"P 8 @/, 8NX  8fQ 8J,'gNupB <``L@ H)l26)z @W , Jf`CfSHj-D@Hd0H@H 0H@0`fSC\fS , @a"C\fApNNNHP?< NA\NuH@aa/a a Nu@0 9c^Nu| PC>$Error # ][Abort]\f.B &lX)K\)ld` lp ,BQjNup(NV"l`Yd&-KNN$"l`YepN&#k"C-KN"Cփk փk2##`փk"`2`& $Y8gHRDD*D%H8#$c2g# HRDD%H`pr`&AdRd QJBgRBBABJk"l` d&6&|0!NuN$"l` epZNC ҳfHP0(N $W$RR@H`2Q"H _$l` dd" $X&0BP6Y&|Hg R@@%E ҳeHQ0)N$_$RR@H`2QNu$Y 0P1@Hg R@@%NuN$$l` epZN)H,Bl0NuE+000 l,N0l0oNNuaNHP l,"X42,0Rl0Bd1 _g !g &g, \g2N`Rl01` _NJ@fp NN _Nt NpR@RABd 1\fRA9A0 _/N"@cԒ@H/N N~p?N _Ntp%NLNhH l,"X42,0Rl0Bd1 _g,vxz| +g. -g( *g $g" #g N`Rl01`` `RCRABd1 _fRA` #g $g *g ,g ^gB +gZ -gT .fRxRDRABdH1 #g ^g +g. -g( _f&RA`RERABd1 ^g +g -f2ALH@NL8"aC " Lx2DE A,b -fEt1BQt1$0000QE[JEft Q0JgE\J"f0J"ff JFj-Sg$E[JEgRE\JEg vJ*g RCJ*f~ g~*Jf`9I0`JEf@RANrE[JEg*ÒEA, gSAR`Ô l,HQ?HjSl0 l,"X0Rl0gL _g0 ,g .g +g( -g $_HRN`$W "0d`Rl0`p Jojp-`Sl0NupCNBBpAN/-?"<N < "< NANv/ANv"Ntp>"<N <4"<NpN,pN$p"<NtN"MOTION OF THE EARTH AROUND THE SUNNAG^NXHmpMN"_NJBfN&N7 <rdNtN8Now let us watch the the motion of the Earth around the N <rdNtN6Sun. In the display above, you are looking at the twoN <rdNtN8bodies from above the Solar System, looking down on themN <rdNtN8at an angle of about 50. This allows us to fit the en-N <rdNtN6tire orbit on the screen. It also of course makes theN <rdNtN5Earth's orbit appear more elliptical than it would if4N <rdNtN-you were looking straight down from overhead.4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HAGNXHmpMN"_NJBfN)rN7pN0pN4pN8prNtp"<XNpxrdNt <"<%NpN$ <rdNtN8After clicking on the CONTINUE box to start the display:NAG^NXHmpMN"_NJBfN*.N7 <"<NtN$Press F: for FASTER Display.N <"<NtN$Press S: for SLOWER Display.N <"<NtN!Press D: to toggle DELAY.4N <"<NtN+Press C: to toggle CALENDAR on/off.:N <"<NtN+Press A or Left Mouse Button: to ADVANCE.4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HAGNXHmpMN"_NJBfN+N7NPpN0pN4pN8ANv/ANv"NtpNA &fff0jBmpN$pN(pN,pNx <rNtN*Press "A" or Left Mouse Button to ADVANCE.N <r$<HA9NXHmpMN"_NJBfN,N7NPA (0pN$pN(pN,pNxpNfpNprNpN,pN0pN4pN8ANv/ANv"NtpNpN0pN4pN8ANz&<x*<NN/ <r$<ANbNN"NtpNANz&<x*<NN? <r$<ANbNN?ANz&<x*<NN? <r$<ANbNN?A" NANv/ANv"Ntp "<N <X"<.N <r$<ANbNN/ <r$<ANbNN"Nt <r$<ANbNN/ <r$<ANbNN"NNpN$pN(pN,pNxANz&<x*<NN/ANz&<x*<NN"NtNSunNANz&<x*<NN/ <r$<ANbNN"NtNEarth4Np$"<NtNTo Vega&NpN$p"<NtN)MOTION OF THE EARTH AND SUN IN THE GALAXYNprNtN!As the Sun moves in the Galaxy, 4Np&rNtN!it takes all the planets, inclu- 4Np0rNtN"ding the Earth, with it. Thus be-NAG^NXHmpMN"_NJBfN0N7p:rNtN!sides its motion around the Sun, 4NpDrNtN!the Earth has another more com- 4NpNrNtN!plex motion. Presently, the Sun 4NpXrNtN!is moving toward the star Vega at4NANz&<x*<N8JBfN1pbrNtN"a speed of about 69,000 km/h. So NN2.pbrNtN a speed of about 43,000 mph. SoNplrNtN"we will plot the motion of Earth, NpvrNtN!as it moves with the Sun through 4N <rNtN!the Galaxy. To show this motion 4NAG^NXHmpMN"_NJBfN2N7p"<pNtNmore clearly, the size of the4Np&"<pNtN!Earth's orbit has been reduced. 4Np0"<pNtN As you view this display, try toNp:"<pNtNremember that as the Earth is NpD"<pNtNmoving around the Sun, the Moon4NAG^NXHmpMN"_NJBfN4.N7pN"<pNtN is also tagging along in a more NpX"<pNtNcomplex orbit than the one we Npb"<pNtNare viewing. Moreover, all of4Npl"<pNtNthe other planets are also be-Npv"<pNtNing dragged along, as well as N <"<pNtNtheir many moons! N <@r$< HANzH <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HAGNXHmpMN"_NJBfN5N7pN,pNfpNprNANv/ANz&<x*<NN"NtANv/ANz&<x*<NN"NN <r$<ANbNN? <r$<ANbNN?ANz&<x*<NN?ANz&<x*<NN?A" NpN,NPpN$pN(pN,pNx <"<NtN*Press "A" or Left Mouse Button to ADVANCE.NA 0A (0A &fff0jBm <r$<HA9NXHmpMN"_NpJBgp/HmpAN"_NpJBgp$gNpN,pN0pN4pN8ANv/ANv"NtpNpN0pN4pN8ANv/ <r$<ANbNN"NtpN <r$<ANbNN? <r$<ANbNN?ANz&<x*<NN? <r$<ANbNN?A" NpN$pN(pN,pNxANz&<x*<NN/ANz&<x*<NN"NtNSunNANz&<x*<NN/ <r$<ANbNN"NtNEarth4NN~LANpN$pN(pN,pNxA$ 0NlC퀴NA퀴NC퀴NN>UgN:pMNC퀴NN>SgN:pANC퀴NHmpMN"_NpJBgp/HmpAN"_NpJBgp/ANz&<x*<NpJBgp$VHgNEC A* 0A Nz&<.8<*<NANbN2A0NA Nz&<x*<NANbN2&<x*< NA6NANz&<x*<N8JBfN< < =2A$CH  "002NPpN$pN(pN,pNx <rNtN+Press A or Left Mouse Button: to ADVANCE.4NpN0pN4pN8ANv/ANv"NtpNAHNz&<x*<N8pJBgp/ANz&<x*<NppJBgp$fN?.N@pr:NN earth year:4N@prFNN#####.##NA6NzNNHmpDN"_NpJBgp/ANz&<x*<NppJBgp$fNBHmpDN"_NJBfN@AN&<x*<N8pJBgp/N>N&<x*<N8pJBgp/Hmp N"_NpJBgp/HmpAN"_NpJBgp$g"HmpMN"_NpJBgp/N>N&<x*<N8pJBgp/N>N&<x*<N8pJBgp/Hmp N"_NpJBgp/HmpAN"_NpJBgp$fNBUgNGpMNC퀴NN~LAlN"_AN@LAfNLA`NLAZNArNAxNA~NA퀄NA퀊NA퀐NANN&<x*<NvNArNArNzvNAZNbNAxN <r$<A`NbNA~NArNzvNAZNbNA퀄NA`Nz&<x*<NA퀊NpN0pN4pN8AxNv/A~Nv"NtA퀄Nv/A퀊Nv"NAfNvN,pNfpNprNAxNv/A~Nv"NtA퀄Nv/A퀊Nv"NAlNvN$pN(pN,pNxAxNz&<x*<NN/A`Nz&<x*<NN"NtANBmNzNlC퀺NA퀺NC퀺NN0NAxNbNpJBgp/N0NA퀄NbNpJBgp/NHNA~NbNpJBgp/NHNA퀊NbNpJBgp/N>N&<x*<N8pJBgp$fNKbpN\pN8AxNz&<x*<NN/A~Nv"Nt <r$<A퀄NbNN/A퀊Nv"Np N\AxNz&<x*<NN/A~Nv"Nt <r$<A퀄NbNN/A퀊Nv"NpN8A퀐 0N>UgNK~pMNC퀺NHmpMN"_NgNKA퀐Nz&<x*<N8JBgBmpNfpNprNN~N&H0380&H07c0&H07c0&H0fe0&H0fe0&H1ff0&H1ff0&H1ff0&H3ff8&H7ffc&H7ffc&Hfffe&Hfffe&Hfffe&Hfffe&Hcfe6&H0000&H0100&H0100&H0380&H0380&H07c0&H07c0&H07c0&H07c0&H17d0&H37d8&H37d8&H77dc&H610c&H4384&H0000#VZ0zt:lvH$j(2*&`X(R` Efv*oM m HPHUBg?<JNA(m)m -:gS)@ -OK1PC#HNXHx?<HNA@)@l/?<HNA)@h&@)@XЬl)@d)@`ARCpr Ѝ"QHNFALN:Hz2?< NA\pdAxr0XQ)K\NNxJrBjNuHz?<&NN\NCAp$L Qp N9lrBlJpNNpMN9@pdAr 0Q0tr N29lNupealp`NuaNJHz?<&NNBWNANC2A@p222NrҌ0<NB0,rNurA9Ar`v C9Cr`rt9@9A9BNrrҌpsNB0,Nu9@N`rDҌpsNBNuC2 @ e @}bA@p222Nr,Ҍ0<NBNu pa4|a@:>< |a6RGk0Gg`a(0GVfA1G<ap??<?<NM\Nu??< NMXNu&8*:EENuHn 2$4BBNuAd RdQRB BbABJk 0NuJBjBBXNu 0Nu 2$NuE`B<gJEgEjCDEDF Fe( F dF8BCHC` F0bFHC8v` HD8HDkDуdQRBNuDdBDA@kgAр[SBk0NuJlJBk&Nu0g H@rB JkЀ[` BbNuJBj prtNuHPAJgPpr$< _Nup _NtNu&8*JEgJBgJjBEB:HC҅H@:|ۆ҄ۆ<HC>H@ЃdHA@B@H@хk HAҁHAрSB BbNuNjpNNuCDEJEgJBgJjBEBQ*HE?<>0rHGGdHGGdSWDуdi\?<>0rHGGdHGGdSWDуdiN?<>0rHGGdHGGdSW2 H@N6?<,>CEdGH@0r`?<`JBgVB&8TTDуdQRBNuDAр&AdRAрAрDуNuprt|=|~  g +g -f .g20  b 0e 9b da`RF` .f 0e 9b dajSF` Eg efX +g -f 0e 9oSH`00  b&Hz0  b E Do`HJjDDDS4</NHJFkSFk&aQNH`Ha"FFaQL8N6.~JgtBn~Nupr$<NuJBk4<rpAC v JBgJjv-| Bb BkH>aaNRFBdL8?N<JBga2SF Be BgQRB`ApdR e <rRF&0xafEv+0JFjDFv-Hƌd0BFHF 0HF0ANuprt|`2:HQ A dGe GbFGNu G0dFGHANu~NuAd RdQRB6Ce0 C/jC C@j C jr0H@{0DH@Nur{0Nu{0NutNuJj(:,af AfBfNu&<x*<NʀHnxr$g4jDk( b4<J@`@[H@0Nu4<Ѐ[Nu4<NuNuAd RdQRBBkBjDBJjDNupNufJj fJAkNupNdRdRrxaAffBWHNuJjDBDA@JBfprJjDEDD@JEfvxNuaغBffAVHNuCDEaEf fDUHNu]HNuCDEaEffDftNuJjtNupN&Jf`CfSHj-D@Hd0H@H 0H@0`fSC\fS , @a"C\fApNNNHP?< NA\NuH@aa/a a Nu@0 9c^Nu| PC>$Error # ][Abort]\f.B &lX)K\)ld` lp ,BQjNup(NVYp-KNu"l`Yd&-KNN"l`YepN&#k"C-KN"Cփk փk2##`փk"`2`& $Y8gHRDD*D%H8#$c2g# HRDD%H`pr`&AdRd QJBgRBBABJk"l` d&6&|0!NuN"l` epZNC ҳfHP0(Np$W$RR@H`2Q"H _$l` dd" $X&0BP6Y&|Hg R@@%E ҳeHQ0)N$_$RR@H`2QNu$Y 0P1@Hg R@@%NuN$l` epZNpCNBpA퀪N/-?rN Nfspins on its axis, it bul- 4NpHrN NZges slightly at the equator,NAVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN02NPHpRrN Nfresulting in a globe that 4Np\rN NZis flattened at the poles.NpfrN NfThis flattening is not very4NpprN NZgreat. In fact, the Earth'sNpzrN Nfdiameter at the equator is 4NABNd&<x*<N:JBfN1p <rN NZonly 43.5 km more than itsNN1 <rN Nfonly 27 miles more than its4N <rN Nfdiameter from pole to pole!4N <rN NZThe Earth also deviates fromN <rN NZbeing a perfect sphere in atN <rN NZleast one other way. . .N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAR4NfHm~pMN"_N"JBfN2NPHpNpNpNprN <"<Np rN NZBecause the Southern Hemi-NprN Nfsphere bulges slightly more4Np rN Nfthan the Northern Hemisphere,4Np*rN NZthe Earth is actually a tinyNp4rN NZbit "pear-shaped"! But a-Np>rN NZgain this distortion is veryNpHrN Nfslight; and if you were out4NpRrN NZin space, you would not beNAVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN4NPHp\rN Nfable to detect it with the 4NpfrN Nfnaked eye. As small as the4NpprN NZdistortions of the Earth'sNpzrN Nfshape are, they are still4N <rN NZable to be measured withN <rN NZsensitive instruments. ManyN <rN NZcan be measured by determin-N <rN NZing the deflection of satel-N <rN NZlites passing over them.N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAR4NfHm~pMN"_N"JBfN6NPHpNpNpNprN <"<NpN"pNpNpNp"<]N prPNPpN"pNpNpNp"<!N p:NAVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN7zNPHpNp"<!N p:Np"<"N p:Nr <"< Np"<5N prNt <"< NpNpNpNp"<SN2AVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN8 NPHp rN NfHere compared to the Moon, 4NprN NZ(shown much closer than itNp rN Nfwould ever be), the Earth 4Np*rN Nfseems a large world. With 4Np4rN NZa diameter equalling aboutNp>rN Nf4 Moon diameters, the Earth4NpHrN Nfis the largest of the inner4NAVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN9NPHpRrN NZplanets. And if you couldNp\rN Nfsomehow wrap a tape-measure4NpfrN NZaround the Earth at the e-NpprN NZquator it would stretch someNABNd&<x*<N:JBfN:pzrN NZ40,060 km. Therefore if it NN:pzrN Nf24,900 miles. Thus if it4N <rN Nfwere possible to drive all 4N <rN Nfthe way around the Earth 4NABNd&<x*<N:JBfN;| <rN Nfat the equator at 88 km/h4NN; <rN NZat the equator at 55 mphN <rN Nfwithout stopping even once,4N <rN NZit would take 19 days!N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAR4NfHm~pMN"_N"JBfNNPHpS"<yN p r NP <"<|N p r NPpZ"<N p r NPpNpNpNpK"<qN prNPAVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN>NPHpS"<|N prNP <"<N prNPpZ"<N prNPpNAVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN?NPHBm <r$<&<x*<AN AVlNfHmpMN"_N"g NXN@ <r$<N&<x*<NNNpNprN(ANd&<x*<NN/ANd&<8<*<N&<x*<NN"N pFNr < ("<NN`,NqHmpMN"_N"JBfN@2NPHpr"<N NfEARTHNpNpN"pg"<N NfTHE SUN4NpNpN"p rN NfWhile the Earth might seem NprN Nflarge compared to the inner4Np rN Nfplanets and the Moon, it is4Np*rN NZquite small when compared toNp4rN Nfthe Sun and its features.4Np>rN NZEven sunspots can be larger;NpHrN Nfand you might recall that4NpRrN NZone sunspot could have swal-NAVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNBNPHp\rN Nflowed more than a hundred4NpfrN NZEarths! Solar prominencesNpprN NZdwarf the Earth like a jetNpzrN Nfairplane dwarfs a mosquito!4N <rN NfAnd the Sun itself is so 4N <rN NZlarge by comparison, that itN <rN Nfwould take over 110 Earth's4N <rN Nfset side-by-side to make up4N <rN NZjust one solar diameter!N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAR4NfHm~pMN"_N"JBfNDDNPHNpp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pNAPhNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNDNPHpNpNpNp:"<N pJNpNpNpNAVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNE,NPHpX"<N prBNPp:"<N pX"<!Np:"<N prBNPpNp:"<N prBNpNAQNfAVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNENPHpN"pNp?"<N NfTHE SUN4NpN"<N Nf332,2704NpW"<N NZEARTHSNpN"pN <"<N NfTHE MASS OF THE EARTH4N <r"N NfISo small is the Earth compared to the Sun, that it would require 332,270 TN <r"N NZHEarths to weigh as much! And this is despite the fact that the Earth isNAVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNGHNPH <r"N NZJalmost 4 times more dense than the Sun! The Earth has an average density N <r"N NfIof about 5.5 times the density of water. Still, the Earth seems to be 4N <r"N NZ0no "light-weight" when compared to the Moon. . .N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAR4NfHm~pMN"_N"JBfNHNPHpNpNprN(Npp@pW?<?<NN\pNAPhNfAVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNI>NPHAQNfAVlNfN\HmpMN"_N"JBfNIvNPHpNpNpNpE"<N p8NpN"AVlNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNINPHpNpI"<N NfEARTH4NpN"pNpNpNpNAH @0BmRAVlNfN\HmpMN"_N"JBfNJJNLAT .0CHA 0 <r$<&<x*<AN AVlNfN\HmpMN"_N"g NXNLANdvN&<x*<NH <r$<L8N&<x*<NN/ANNdATNLNN"N pNANdvN&<x*<NH <r$<L8N&<x*<NN/ANNdATNLNN"N pNANdvN&<x*<N&<x*<NH <r$<L8NN/ANNdATNLNN"N pNANdvN&<x*<N&<x*<NH <r$<L8NN/ANNdATNLNN"N pNATNd&<x*<NATNxN`NqAHNZANNd&<x*<NANNxHmpMN"_N"gNM AHNdzN:JBgHmpMN"_N"JBfNM,NPHpNpNpNpF"<N pP"<NpNpN"<N NZ81 MOONSNpN <r"N NfGThe mass of 81 Moons would be required to equal the mass of the Earth! 4N <r"N NZJWith an average density of about 1.5 times the density of the Moon, the NAVlNfN\HmpMN"_N"JBfNNlNPHABNd&<x*<N:JBfNN <r"N NZFEarth weighs approximately 1.23 billion trillion tons. This is enoughNNON <r"N NZFEarth weighs approximately 1.35 billion trillion tons. 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B,&LNu-W)K20, 8k8@ gJl&f"Nu , 8g"P 8 @/, 8N  8fQ 8J,'gNupB <``L@ H)l26)z @W , Jf`CfSHj-D@Hd0H@H 0H@0`fSC\fS , @a"C\fApNNNHP?< NA\NuH@aa/a a Nu@0 9c^Nu| PC>$Error # ][Abort]\f.B &lX)K\)ld` lp ,BQjNup(NV)l g,vARC( g9CJ9|Lp!,N FPeNuA JpBQA/)H )l gBlJpNB Aprt0 0BBB R@ @efA000 0PB0 *00 000\0X0 *0000 0P0BX0, *@00p1| 1|QBX0 $HTH0P &0 *0,NupNSk [0NupNuHPaH8 _&X Pf/|~ K!zag @ ep 24C"2 S@ػ Td BTA3A0C4$I2a222B"0@2A\xvaRg<2#M 4B3BS@ -f ػ Td>BAAb8RGRC`3RSG5GC5C J1DcaRF F e`RG GcdNuXASF1F41R 1h4 x1EDgVA)H)H 9|J?<NNTU@g,ACg dRhdRh(gpL8Np>L8Np)@JphNLtH &JKBCH .A/~0 1PP1P1PA L? &<@>AFG0000X0000X0000X0000C ~AJ0g0  pi, N"F QNu"l`Yd&-KNN"l`YepN&#k"C-KN"Cփk փk2##`փk"`2`& $Y8gHRDD*D%H8#$c2g# HRDD%H`pr`&AdRd QJBgRBBABJk"l` d&6&|0!NuN"l` epZNC ҳfHP0(Np$W$RR@H`2Q"H _$l` dd" $X&0BP6Y&|Hg R@@%E ҳeHQ0)N$_$RR@H`2QNu$Y 0P1@Hg R@@%NuN$l` epZNpCNBpAN/-?r7NNfEarth4NpNpNpNpN <rZNNZDirection of Earth'sN <rZNNfMotion Around the Sun4Np"<NNfDirection of Moon's4Np"<NNfMotion Around Earth4NpNpNprN pNpd"<?N <"<NpNpNpNpNpn"<DNNf' SIDEREAL AND SYNODIC MONTHS 4Np|"<DNNf'To ancient astronomers, a month was the4N <"<DNNZ&period of time for the Moon to revolveN <"<DNNf'around the Earth. As we shall see, de-4N <"<DNNf%pending on one's frame of reference, 4N <"<DNNZthere are two kinds of months:N <"<DNNZ A) the Sidereal MonthN <"<DNNZ B) the Synodic Month.N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAcJNHmpMN"_N"JBfN.N`p"<@Np"<Nnpe"<AN <"<}Nnpn"<FNNZ&First, let us look at how the Earth Npw"<FNNZ&and Moon move together around the Sun.N <"<FNNZ&Our display (greatly exaggerated in N <"<FNNf%scale) looks down on the Solar system4N <"<FNNf from above.eN <"<FNNf%After clicking on the CONTINUE box to4N <"<FNNfbegin the motion display:4N <"<INNZ Press D: to toggle DELAY.N <"<INNf% Press M: to return directly to MENU.4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAcJNHmpMN"_N"JBfN1hN`p6r4Np@rdNnpb"<< |a6RGk0Gg`a(0GVfA1G<ap??<?<NM\Nu??< NMXNu&8*:EENuHn 2$4BBNuAd RdQRB BbABJk 0NuJBjBBXNu 0Nu 2$NuE`B<gJEgEjCDEDF Fe( F dF8BCHC` F0bFHC8v` HD8HDkDуdQRBNuDdBDA@kgAр[SBk0NuJlJBk&Nu0g H@rB JkЀ[` BbNuJBj prtNuHPAJgPpr$< _Nup _NtNu&8*JEgJBgJjBEB:HC҅H@:|ۆ҄ۆ<HC>H@ЃdHA@B@H@хk HAҁHAрSB BbNuN pNNuCDEJEgJBgJjBEBQ*HE?<>0rHGGdHGGdSWDуdi\?<>0rHGGdHGGdSWDуdiN?<>0rHGGdHGGdSW2 H@N?<,>CEdGH@0r`?<`JBgVB&8TTDуdQRBNuDAр&AdRAрAрDуNuprt|=|4  g +g -f .g20  b 0e 9b da`RF` .f 0e 9b dajSF` Eg efX +g -f 0e 9oSH`00  b&Hz0  b E Do`HJjDDDS4</NJFkSFk&aQN`Ha"FFaQL8N6.4JgtBn4Nupr$<NuJBk4<rpAC v JBgJjv-| Bb BkH>aaNRFBdL8?N<JBga2SF Be BgQRB`ApdR e <rRF&0xafEv+0JFjDFv-Hƌd0BFHF 0HF0ANuprt|`2:HQ A dGe GbFGNu G0dFGHANu~NuAd RdQRB6Ce0 C/jC C@j C jr0H@{0DH@Nur{0Nu{0NutNuJj(:,af AfBfNu&<x*<NကHn.r$g4jDk( b4<J@`@[H@0Nu4<Ѐ[Nu4<NuNuAd RdQRBBkBjDBJjDNupNufJj fJAkNupNdRdRrxaAffBWHNuJjDBDA@JBfprJjDEDD@JEfvxNuaغBffAVHNuCDEaEf fDUHNu]HNuCDEaEffDftNuJjtNupN&JBfZLH@BDBh/?U@gbgXea`LHLN\ dgHL8Nb`L8NbTJk2NuHLJk6NL8NbN~L`LN\TJjH&<x*<NLN>JBf,LNVLHNL8NbN~J jBNupNJBgRBNuJBgCjtNu"l`Qd&&|-KNuN"l`Qep[N c R nPNu _\-KNE`$@Hz ?<&NN\Nu Nup `p ap Cpln<,(AL$I"vz x `gfURf~QjJFj4\Fk.aPHS&I.N``p???<NM\Qj&_Nu|HQ/g ??<@NAXXfNuJkp%NNu09JjDNu @ 2$4BBNABJk0!Nux&k@FC Be& B dЄeNu B0dHDDdRdQRBNu&<x*<NFC Be B djNu B0dDdSkfJAftNuAр[SBNu"l`d&6JBft&&| NuN"l`ep NCDE"l`d"JBftJEfz&6&&6&&|NuN"l`ep N c 2$F4BBNJBgB*#E8#&#Jjh`,J]o6\`6 c 2$4BBN*#8#&#Jk:JkִEffDbAeABJk0!NuRdQRB`JjҺBf̶fȸA` c 2$4BB*#[8#&#N*#8#&#JBgJjEJjL`Ja:Jo\`Jk:JkEffDbAeABJk0!NukDNuQRB`JjҺBf̶fȸA`p`pN @ddAgH`p`p9@(9@*BlNuN(CpNEN`&(*NNbN <ڢ2,SFSGFnHGnDDDk9DBlDEk9EBlFcllGcll0,lb 0,lcNu.pmrtA)HA)HNpNHHPN:4 _:8><DbFEbGCHP@dʾAdBD2ƞE29|C???FF22N23BRG0@\@N"2)IN.(* 9AJA)H@@[000][ˈN0 Evz`* [g" ]g |g QSz` zQSpQ][ɈN0 Dvx`* [g" ]g |g QSx` xQSpQ]Bp4NޚHNuN0AH2 @erp0QtpoNNr|<N0 @xepw2A$JBjDFHB t`0QBl9F)lVTAtp 9| Np`p`pNNu~`~ `~HAҬ 2HA dJ@g??)AVHT hf if$Qb XbEJf$?`NNlX4TSWjT` $A4TQE I XX0d?NNlVT4SWfT`2,V`$AT4Qr40NA R4RB`A Gf //o~4$_<F"OSG !H@Ь 2 Q)@RHRprN2(g"P@g2RADAH""l`r2oZAe 1@#)I`Nuk1@Nup NN"l`dpNAtrdJhk\QpaNH ld$l`"Hg0 k&@ S`g k#&@0+S@H3 Q&f)I`LNu?<?<NAXJgJgNAH@B pNA NuApNA0pNNZ$Np$BS@kH2QNupC ұd"X0Pg"RA$D#Nu"X0Nu _0HpN _0HpNE ұeHHQ0)N$_$ZR@H`2QNu$Y0gHR@@"D%$X0P2g# R@%NupE $ $X0dP.gRG,D%pr Y2dP.gRG,D!p4Ae4v`VfANuNWHNu(* 0(iNp$E 4R`Q$D 4R`QˈN0 DN0 ENua NuN0 IHPg"B  g &gNJBjt BNut`Rptr ae OgT Xgj HgSRB ae Fb$0k  c_  c b退`tSJBkNZRB0 b b瀀`RB0 fрd`pC 0(gFd"P$I` *Np$E$R(S@jv A(Wf( ae zb Q DNuH&NրNζjNuHpx$ ld$l`"Hg8" &Ak eѐ S`g"" k#&Aeё2+SAI3 Q&f)I`LNu$Nq Y Qf*d ЀЀ 2$4BBNuVHRp` HRpJQfpNh$_& Y Qf d փփABJk 0NNTNN~,Nq8DRzXEEg"7PNqR$HBJBgpNJgJigp`eetЂ`"ЀeЁdp`ЀeЀe"Ѕe$W.H@@/ l\N NDL"2` NqR YEjrd0` SjN" KC`e N`d \Nz l\Ӭ\ NupNd d3 d# d# # d# # # # d# # # # # # # # dB` # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # QNuC l ", Ⲭ dfѬ SA 0! Nup"NNNrJfNup#`p`pNu)H9@Jp4NޚP'J&f H LNu P&NuQ'` J,'fJ,&gHA#ȇeC! B,&LNu-W)K20, 8k8@ gJl&f"Nu , 8g"P 8 @/, 8Nf  8fQ 8J,'gNupB <``L@ H)l26)z @W , Jf`CfSHj-D@Hd0H@H 0H@0`fSC\fS , @a"C\fApNNNބHP?< NA\NuH@aa/a a Nu@0 9c^Nu| PC>$Error # ][Abort]\f.B &lX)K\)ld` lp ,BQjNup(NVYp-KNu"l`Yd&-KNN"l`YepN&#k"C-KN"Cփk փk2##`փk"`2`& $Y8gHRDD*D%H8#$c2g# HRDD%H`pr`&AdRd QJBgRBBABJk"l` d&6&|0!NuN"l` epZNC ҳfHP0(Np$W$RR@H`2Q"H _$l` dd" $X&0BP6Y&|Hg R@@%E ҳeHQ0)N$_$RR@H`2QNu$Y 0P1@Hg R@@%NuN$l` epZNpC NBpAN/-?Nn&pNpNNpN0pN4pN8p N <raNNZSIZES OF THE PLANETSNArbNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN:Nn&pN0pN4pN8p N <rbNNZSIZES OF THE PLANETSNpN0pN4pN8p N <rcNNZSIZES OF THE PLANETSNArbNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN;Nn&pN0pN4pN8pNpIrNNZMarsN <rNNfVenus4NptrNNfEarth4N <rNNfMercury4Npr NNf Pluto and4NprNNZCharonNprdNNfJupiter4Np:"<NNZUranusNp:"<5NNfNeptune4Npq"<NNZSaturnNArbNfHmpMN"_N"JBfN(Nn&?<Z?<M?<&?<A" NNpNr NNZhydrogen and helium, they NpHr NNfstill manage to dwarf the4NpRr NNZInner Planets in both sizeNArbNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNJfNn&p\r NNZand mass. Since the com- Npfr NNZposition of the gas giantsNppr NNZclosely resembles that of Npzr NNZthe Sun, many experts con-N <r NNfsider them to be "stars 4N <r NNfthat failed"! All they4N <r NNZlacked to become stars wasN <r NNZsufficient mass to start N <r NNZstellar nuclear reactions.N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAn*NfHmpMN"_N"JBfNLNn&pNr NNZWhile the much-closer In- NpHr NNZner Planets "boiled" underNArbNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNN Nn&pRr NNZintense radiation from theNp\r NNZbirth of the Sun, the gas Npfr NNZgiants remained relativelyNppr NNZ"unscathed". Thus, withNpzr NNZtheir massive primordial N <r NNZatmospheres intact, theyN <r NNZrepresent the major por-N <r NNZtion of the total mass of N <r NNZ the planets.N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAn*NfHmpMN"_N"JBfNPNn&?<?<A"Nl <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNZCONTINUEHP <r$<HAn*NfHmpMN"_N"JBfNPNn&N8p[C&Np[C,NAl 0Ar 0Ax $0A~ s33306A퀄 ffff0iA퀊 @0N`A퀊NNb&<x*<NA퀐N.A~NAxNNbAN.A퀄NAxNNbAHN.N\pNNNCNrANBCNrNUgNS pMNCNrHmpMN"_N"g NXNTN`A퀖NNb&<x*<NA퀜N.AN/A퀜NNANNbHA퀐NNL8NbHA퀜NNAHNNbHA퀐NNL8NbL8N|AlNNC&NdAN/A퀜NNANNbHA퀐NNL8NbHA퀜NNAHNNbHA퀐NNL8NbL8N&<3338<4*<NArNNC,NdANNt``NqHmpMN"_N"JBfNTNn&A 40A퀖 40 <r$<&<x*<A퀖NA퀖N&<x*<NJBfNU< <"<NprNA퀖N&<x*<NJBfNUx <"<Npr7NA퀖N&<x*<NJBfNU <"<NpriNA퀖N&<x*<NJBfNU <"<Np"<NA퀖N&<x*<NJBfNV4 <"<Np"<NNCNrANBCNrNUgNVlpMNCNrHmpMN"_N"g NXNWN`A퀖NNb&<x*<NA퀜N.AN/A퀜NNANNbHA퀐NNL8NbHA퀜NNAHNNbHA퀐NNL8NbL8N|AlNNC&NdAN/A퀜NNANNbHA퀐NNL8NbHA퀜NNAHNNbHA퀐NNL8NbL8N&<3338<4*<NArNNC,NdANNt`NqArbNfHmpMN"_N"JBfNXNn&p[C&A,rNHmpMN"_N"JBfNXFNn&pN2* Dr<\ $ * D JH* ,TvP8dpx8<< |a6RGk0Gg`a(0GVfA1G<ap??<?<NM\Nu??< NMXNu&8*:EENuHn& 2$4BBNuAd RdQRB BbABJk 0NuJBjBBXNu 0Nu 2$NuE`B<gJEgEjCDEDF Fe( F dF8BCHC` F0bFHC8v` HD8HDkDуdQRBNuDdBDA@kgAр[SBk0NuJlJBk&Nu0g H@rB JkЀ[` BbNuJBj prtNuHPAJgPpr$< _Nup _NtNu&8*JEgJBgJjBEB:HC҅H@:|ۆ҄ۆ<HC>H@ЃdHA@B@H@хk HAҁHAрSB BbNuN,pNNuCDEJEgJBgJjBEBQ*HE?<>0rHGGdHGGdSWDуdi\?<>0rHGGdHGGdSWDуdiN?<>0rHGGdHGGdSW2 H@N?<,>CEdGH@0r`?<`JBgVB&8TTDуdQRBNuDAр&AdRAрAрDуNuprt|=|@  g +g -f .g20  b 0e 9b da`RF` .f 0e 9b dajSF` Eg efX +g -f 0e 9oSH`00  b&Hz0  b E Do`HJjDDDS4</N JFkSFk&aQN `Ha"FFaQL8N6.@JgtBn@Nupr$<NuJBk4<rpAC v JBgJjv-| Bb BkH>aaNRFBdL8?N<JBga2SF Be BgQRB`ApdR e <rRF&0xafEv+0JFjDFv-Hƌd0BFHF 0HF0ANuprt|`2:HQ A dJf`CfSHj-D@Hd0H@H 0H@0`fSC\fS , @a"C\fApNNNHP?< NA\NuH@aa/a a Nu@0 9c^Nu| PC>$Error # ][Abort]\f.B &lX)K\)ld` lp ,BQjNup(NVYp-KNu"l`Yd&-KNN"l`YepN&#k"C-KN"Cփk փk2##`փk"`2`& $Y8gHRDD*D%H8#$c2g# HRDD%H`pr`&AdRd QJBgRBBABJk"l` d&6&|0!NuN"l` epZNC ҳfHP0(N$W$RR@H`2Q"H _$l` dd" $X&0BP6Y&|Hg R@@%E ҳeHQ0)NJ$_$RR@H`2QNu$Y 0P1@Hg R@@%NuN$l` epZN,jJj `BffAgb Jj 2$NuJjNupC큌NBPpAPN/-P?rNNthis distance, light from the4NpHrNNSun requires about 8 minutesNAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfN)NjpRrNNto reach us! Moreover, evenNp\rNNthe fastest jet plane would NpfrNNtake 4 years to travel such NpprNNa distance without stopping!NpzrNNThe Earth moves in its orbitNA6N&&<x*<N|JBfN*D <rNNat a speed of 107,800 km/h.4NN*v <rNNat a velocity of 67,000 mph.N <rNNThis is more than twice the4N <rNNspeed which was required to4N <rNNtake the Apollo astronauts N <rNN to the Moon!N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HAo*NfHm&pMN:"_N^JBfN+NjpNpNpNprN <"<Ntp rNNThe distance at which the NprNNEarth orbits the Sun is crit-4Np rNNical to life on our planet.4Np*rNNIf the Earth were too close Np4rNNto the Sun, all liquid water 4Np>rNNwould evaporate. If it wereNpHrNNtoo far from the Sun, all4NpRrNNwater would freeze. In eachNp\rNNcase, life as we understand NAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfN-NjpfrNNit would be impossible! TheNpprNNEarth thus orbits the Sun in 4NpzrNNthe so-called "life zone", an4N <rNNarea where temperatures on a 4N <rNNplanet would allow liquid wa-4N <rNNter to exist. Roughly, the4N <rNNzone stretches between theN <rNNorbits of Venus and Mars.4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HAo*NfHm&pMN:"_N^JBfN/NjpNpNpNprN <"<NtpNpNpNprN pY"<NpV"<Np rNNThe shape of the Earth's or-NprNNbit is not constant! Over aNp rNNperiod of 95,000 years, itNp*rNNspreads out to become more Np4rNNelliptical, then shrinks back4Np>rNNto nearly a perfect circle.4NpHrNNThis distortion is caused byNpRrNNthe gravities of the Sun andNp\rNNthe planets acting on Earth.NAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfN1NjpfrNNThe phenomenon is one of theNpprNN"Milankovitch cycles", whichNpzrNNare now thought to play a ma-4N <rNNjor role in the Earth's ice N <rNNages. Currently, the Earth4N <rNNis close to that part of theN <rNNcycle where its orbit is most4N <rNNcircular. Lucky for us!N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HAo*NfHm&pMN:"_N^JBfN3NjNpNpNprN pN?<?<?<?<?<?<Bg?<?<?<~N N\pNpNpN <"<NAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfN4rNjpNpNpN <"<=NpNpNpNprN <"<@Np"<N^ < rdNpNpNprN pN <"<NpNpN <"<NpNpNpNpNpNpN <"<.NNSun4NpN <"<NNEarth4N <"<NNECLIPTICNp "<NN THE ECLIPTICNAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfN5NjprActually it is the Earth which is moving, moving as we said inNprNjN\A 0 <r$<ANAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^g NXN? <r$<NN&N <r$<N&<x*<NN&+@X <r$<NN&+@\ -\"-XNJgN??-Z?-^~N N`PNqAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfN?NjpNpH"<N <N\ <"< NAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfN@(NjpNpH"<N <N\ < "<NpH"<NprNNhours, thus defining its day.4NpHrNNSome planets rotate so slowly,NpRrNNthat their days are extremely4Np\rNNlong. For example, Venus has4NAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfNG4NjpfrNNthe longest day of any planet,NpprNNsince it takes 243 Earth days4NpzrNNto rotate once on its axis!4N <rNNBecause the spin of the Earth4N <rNNis so constant, we set our 4N <rNNtime by it. The "day/night"N <rNNcycle is firmly entrenched in4N <rNNalmost all living things.4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HAo*NfHm&pMN:"_N^JBfNI@NjpNpNpNprN <"<Ntp rNNWe all know that the length ofNprNNa day varies. For example, inNp rNNthe Northern Hemisphere, days4Np*rNNare longer in the summer than4Np4rNNin the winter. This, as we4Np>rNNshall see, is due to the tilt4NpHrNNof the Earth, rather than to aNpRrNNvariation in its rotation. 4Np\rNNYet the Earth's rotation is4NAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfNK@NjpfrNNchanging! In fact it is get-4NpprNNting slower, retarded by theNpzrNNMoon's gravity. The rate ofN <rNNchange is minute, but it is N <rNNmeasurable. In fact, not 4N <rNNlong ago, a "leap second" had4N <rNNto be added to our clocks,to 4N <rNNcompensate for this slowing!N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HAo*NfHm&pMN:"_N^JBfNMLNjpNpNpNprN <"<Ntp rNNA planet's tilt is called its NprNN"inclination", and is a meas-4Np rNNure of how "vertical" a planetNp*rNNis with respect to the plane of4Np4rNNits orbit. The Earth is not aNp>rNNvery "upright" planet. RatherNpHrNN it is tilted 23.5 off vertical,NAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfNNNjpRrNNand in another of the Milanko-Np\rNN vitch cycles, the Earth's incli-NpfrNNnation varies over a span ofNpprNN40,000 years. In that period,NpzrNNits tilt ranges from 21.8 to N <rNN24.4 and back again. Again we4N <rNNseem to be in the middle of the4N <rNNcycle!N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HAo*NfHm&pMN:"_N^JBfNPNjNpp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\ <r$<HAjNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfNQNjNpNpNpN <"<NpdNAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfNQNjpNpNpNprN ?<?<k?<?<~N pp"<NprN <"<NprcN^ <"<Npu"<Np r=N^ <"<N <"<Np r[N^ <"<N <"<Np rLN^ < H"<NAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfNRNj <"<Np=rAN^ <"< N <"<5Np=rAN^ <*"<N <"<Np8r[N^ <"< \N <"<*Np8r[N^ <"< N <"<Np2r_N^ <l"< NpNpNprN pN?<6?<n?<c?< ~N ?<?<n?<?< ~N ?<?<p?<?<~N pNpNpNprN ?<?<o?<?<~N ?<6?<m?<c?< ~N ?<?<m?<?< ~N AsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfNTNjpNpNprN pNp "<Np rdN^ < H"<NpNpNprN pNp "<Np rdN^ < H"<NpNpNpNp"<NpNp"<fNpNp"<NpNpNpNpNp"<NpNp"<fNpNp"<NpNAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfNUNjpNpNprN <"<Npr"<3N <"<Npr"<NpNp"<NNThubanNp "<?NNVegaNp"<NNPolaris4NprvNNDIFFERENT NORTH STARS4NprNN+When you spin a top, it has a tendency to 4Np rNN-wobble, its axis also spinning. Thus the top4Np*rNN.wobbles around its balance point, and its axisNp4rNN,defines a cone. This effect is called "pre-Np>rNN,cession"; and it similarly occurs with gyro-NpHrNN0scopes and with the Earth! Since the Moon pullsNpRrNN/constantly on Earth's tidal bulge, our planet's4Np\rNN.axis slowly wobbles to complete a circle everyNAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfNXNjpfrNN.26,000 years! Defining a cone with its centerNpprNN/at the center of the Earth, this results in the4NpzrNN-North Pole pointing to different stars during4N <rNN.the cycle. For instance, Thuban was the NorthN <rNN)Star 5,000 years ago, and Vega will be in4N <rNN.about 12,000 years! Polaris is the North StarN <rNN-now. This is another of the Milankovitch cy-4N <rNN,cles, which may also contribute to ice ages.N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HAo*NfHm&pMN:"_N^JBfN[JNjNpp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pNpNprN pNp)"<@Np$"<,N^ <@"<Np)"<@Np$"<,N^ < H"<NpNpNpNpL"<0NpNp"<ZNp NpNpNpNp#"<TNpNpNpNprN AsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfN\Nj?<%?<U?<>?<C~N ?<dBg?<P?< ~N ?<p?<#?<c?<0~N ?<?<#?<?<1~N pNpNpNp)"<lNpN\ <"< Np)rNpN\ < "<NpL"<0NpNpL"<0Np N\ <"< TNpNpNpNp)"<kNpN\ < "<Np)rNpN\ <"< Np"<ZNpNAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfN]NjpNpNprN pNp&"<9Np&r(Np&"<lNp&"<XNA6N&&<x*<N|JBfN^p#rvNN151 million kmNp""<NN148 million kmNN^p#rnNN94 million milesNp""<NN92 million milesNp"<dNNSpringNpF"<NNAutumnNp/r$NNSummerNp/"<,NNWinterNp6"<NN)All seasons shown for Northern Hemisphere4NpNAsbNfHm,pMN:"_N^JBfN_Njpu"<$NNSEASONSoNprreceives far greater amounts of sunshine. 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Nup"NNNJfNup#`p`pNu)H9@Jp4NbP'J&f H LNu P&NuQ'` J,'fJ,&gHA#ȇeC! B,&LNu-W)K20, 8k8@ gJl&f"Nu , 8g"P 8 @/, 8Nf  8fQ 8J,'gNupB <``L@ H)l26)z @W , Jf`CfSHj-D@Hd0H@H 0H@0`fSC\fS , @a"C\fApNNNLHP?< NA\NuH@aa/a a Nu@0 9c^Nu| PC>$Error # ][Abort]\f.B &lX)K\)ld` lp ,BQjNup(NVYp-KNu"l`Yd&-KNN"l`YepN&#k"C-KN"Cփk փk2##`փk"`2`& $Y8gHRDD*D%H8#$c2g# HRDD%H`pr`&AdRd QJBgRBBABJk"l` d&6&|0!NuN"l` epZNC ҳfHP0(N$W$RR@H`2Q"H _$l` dd" $X&0BP6Y&|Hg R@@%E ҳeHQ0)N$_$RR@H`2QNu$Y 0P1@Hg R@@%NuN$l` epZNpCNBpANP/-?~ND?<?<9?<?<6~NDpNRpNlprN|pP"<N`pr(N <"< "NpQ"<N`prN < "<NA"<gNpq"<N`py"<NpN <"<N`NINNER4N <"<N`NCORENpN <"<N`NOUTER4N <"<#N`NCORENpp"<aN`NMANTLENpx"<N`N CONTINENTSNA?<P?<~ND?<s?<@?<a?<~ND?<?<?<T?<~NDANspCNpC"NpC(NpC.NBmL <r$<AHN*AHN/N4CNNAHN/N4C"NNN`NqNqBmL <r$<AHN*AHN/N4C(NNAHN/N4C.NNN`NqNq <r$<HAx NfHmpMNr"_NJBfNaBNspNpN pN$prWN`pP"<DNpOrN`pc"<NpN?<?<]?<?<~NDpNpNpNpNdp"< N`N THE BIOSPHERE4NprXN`N9Besides the features already discussed, the Earth posses-4NprXN`N8ses a "structure" unlike any known to exist elsewhere inNA,$,Jr4` |t4^,#a000000 #b000000 #c7770007000600070055200505552220770557075055507703111103 #d #E 98 02 #W 00 00 10 02 1E 09 08 A:\*.*@ #W 00 00 28 01 1B 17 00 @ #W 00 00 0E 09 2A 0B 00 @ #W 00 00 0F 0A 2A 0B 00 @ #M 00 00 00 FF A FLOPPY DISK@ @ #M 00 01 00 FF B FLOPPY DISK@ @ #T 00 03 02 FF TRASH@ @ #F FF 04 @ *.*@ #D FF 01 @ *.*@ #G 03 FF *.APP@ @ #G 03 FF *.PRG@ @ #F 03 04 *.TOS@ @ #P 03 04 *.TTP@ @ May 1, 1989 update: Further testing of The Computer Guide to the Solar System with TOS 1.2 and TOS 1.4 reveal the following: TOS 1.2 reads the mouse slightly differently than TOS 1.0. This causes the pointer to revert back to the normal Atari ST pointer whenever the Main Menu is accessed. There is no functional difference, as the mouse pointer continues to perform all the tasks described in the Owner's Manual. Aside from in the Main Menu, the mouse pointer assumes the shapes described in the manual for all other parts of the program. TOS 1.4 reads the mouse even differently than TOS 1.2. While the mouse pointer retains the shape of the "spaceship" in the Main Menu, you may notice a slight flicker at times. `ZZ` Efv*oM* m HPHUBg?<JNA(m)m -:gS)@ -OK1PC#HNׄHx?<HNA@)@l/?<HNA)@h&@)@XЬl)@d)@`ARCpr Ѝ"QHNFALNHz2?< NA\pdAxr0XQ)K\NN >>N ,`NuJrBjNuHz?<&NN\N(CAp$L Qp N9lrBlJpNNpMN9@pdAr 0Q0tr Nb9lNNupealp`NuaNJHz?<&NNBWNANC2A@p222NrҌ0<NB0,rNurA9Ar`v C9Cr`rt9@9A9BNrrҌpsNB0,Nu9@N`rDҌpsNBNuC2 @ e @}bA@p222Nr,Ҍ0<NBNu pa4|a@:>< |a6RGk0Gg`a(0GVfA1G<ap??<?<NM\Nu??< NMXNu&8*:EENuHn 2$4BBNuAd RdQRB BbABJk 0NuJBjBBXNu 0Nu 2$NuE`B<gJEgEjCDEDF Fe( F dF8BCHC` F0bFHC8v` HD8HDkDуdQRBNuDdBDA@kgAр[SBk0NuJlJBk&Nu0g H@rB JkЀ[` BbNuJBj prtNuHPAJgPpr$< _Nup _NtNu&8*JEgJBgJjBEB:HC҅H@:|ۆ҄ۆ<HC>H@ЃdHA@B@H@хk HAҁHAрSB BbNuNۚpNNuCDEJEgJBgJjBEBQ*HE?<>0rHGGdHGGdSWDуdi\?<>0rHGGdHGGdSWDуdiN?<>0rHGGdHGGdSW2 H@Nf?<,>CEdGH@0r`?<`JBgVB&8TTDуdQRBNuDAр&AdRAрAрDуNuprt|=|ۮ  g +g -f .g20  b 0e 9b da`RF` .f 0e 9b dajSF` Eg efX +g -f 0e 9oSH`00  b&Hz0  b E Do`HJjDDDS4</NxJFkSFk&aQNx`Ha"FFaQL8NL6.ۮJgtBnۮNupr$<NuJBk4<rpAC v JBgJjv-| Bb BkH>aaNRFBdL8?NL<JBga2SF Be BgQRB`ApdR e <rRF&0xafEv+0JFjDFv-Hƌd0BFHF 0HF0ANuprt|`2:HQ A dGe GbFGNu G0dFGHANu~NuAd RdQRB6Ce0 C/jC C@j C jr0H@{0DH@Nur{0Nu{0NutNuJj(:,af AfBfNu&<x*<NHnڨr$g4jDk( b4<J@`@[H@0Nu4<Ѐ[Nu4<NuNuAd RdQRBBkBjDBJjDNupNufJj fJAkNupNdRdRrxaAffBWHNuJjDBDA@JBfprJjDEDD@JEfvxNuaغBffAVHNuCDEaEf fDUHNu]HNuCDEaEffDftNuJjtNupN&L8NNL`LNTJjH&<x*<NLLNJBf,LNVLHN>L8NNJ jBNupNJBgRBNuJBgCjtNu"l`Qd&&|-KNuN"l`Qep[NA"l` d&&&|-KNuN"l` ep[N c R nPNu _\-KN c "#kЁ n NuЁ l _\-KNE`$@Hz ?<&NN\Nu NuNڔNH"HNxNNx@@e ?pa0`@H`0,nF@RCNx p `p ap Cpln<,(AL$I"vz x `gfURf~QjJFj4\Fk.aPHS&I.N``p???<NM\Qj&_Nu|HQ/g ??<@NAXXfNuJkp%NNu09?<%NNTNuJBfNu <r$<NuJjDNu @ 2$4BBNxABJk0!Nu @PN>PNux&k@FC Be& B dЄeNu B0dHDDdRdQRBNu&<x*<NFC Be B djNu B0dDdSkfJAftNuAр[SBNu"l`d&6JBft&&| NuN"l`ep NCDE"l`d"JBftJEfz&6&&6&&|NuN"l`ep N c 2$F4BBNxJBgB*#E8#&#Jjh`,J]o6\`6 c 2$4BBNx*#8#&#Jk:JkִEffDbAeABJk0!NuRdQRB`JjҺBf̶fȸA` c 2$4BB*#[8#&#N*#8#&#JBgJjEJjL`Ja:Jo\`Jk:JkEffDbAeABJk0!NukDNuQRB`JjҺBf̶fȸA`p`pN @ddAgH`p`p9@(9@*BlNuNCpNxEN`NJ@g,A,BBgHQ?<=NAP FJ@k??<>NAXtNutNuN` A$ HJo d*b` QjNuQjNubNN$/ND.,*Q(,l؅kb/,h?<INA\/?<HNA\Jg< l`"ld۬d۬`)Dl$I& `&bۛp0R@@b&C CX`~/,l?<HNA\p=N4$_*(<HREHRa" EHRa DHRa??<KNNANNuN @ep~QBNu&(*NFNN8 <ڢ2,SFSGFnHGnDDDk9DBlDEk9EBlFcllGcll0,lb 0,lcNupmrtA)HA)HNbpN~HHPN4 _:8><DbFEbGCHP@dʾAdBD2ƞE29|C???FF22N23BRG0@\@N~"2)IN(* 9AJA)H@@[000][ˈN Evz`* [g" ]g |g QSz` zQSpQ][ɈN Dvx`* [g" ]g |g QSx` xQSpQ]Bp4NHNuNAH2 @erp0QtpoNbNr|<N @xepw2A$JBjDFHB t`0QBl9F)lVTAtp 9| Nbp`p`pNNu~`~ `~HAҬ 2HA dJ@g??)AVHT hf if$Qb XbEJf$?`NڔNlX4TSWjT` $A4TQE I XX0d?NڔNlVT4SWfT`2,V`$AT4Qr40NbA R4RB`A Gf //o~4$_<F"OSG !H@Ь 2 Q)@RHRprNb2(g"P@g2RADAH""l`r2oZAe 1@#)I`Nuk1@Nup NN"l`dpNAtrdJhk\QpaNH ld$l`"Hg0 k&@ S`g k#&@0+S@H3 Q&f)I`LNu?<?<NAXJgJgNnAH@B pNA NuApNA0pNN$N$BS@kH2QNupC ұd"X0Pg"RA$D#Nu"X0Nu _0HpN _0HpNE ұeHHQ0)N~$_$ZR@H`2QNu$Y0gHR@@"D%$X0P2g# R@%NupE $ $X0dP.gRG,D%pr Y2dP.gRG,D!p4Ae4v`VfANuN8WHNu(* 0(iN$E 4R`Q$D 4R`QˈN DN ENua NuN IHPg"B  g &gNdJBjt BNut`Rptr ae OgT Xgj HgSRB ae Fb$0k  c_  c b退`tSJBkNRB0 b b瀀`RB0 fрd`pC 0(gFd"P$I` *N$E$R(S@jv A(Wf( ae zb Q DNuH&NրNjNuHpx$ ld$l`"Hg8" &Ak eѐ S`g"" k#&Aeё2+SAI3 Q&f)I`LNuHpx$&ր ld$l`"HgR" k&Ac b S` S`g4" k#&AcbrkX`ޑ2+SAI3 Q&f)I`LNu Nq Y Qf*d ЀЀ 2$4BBNuJf`CfSHj-D@Hd0H@H 0H@0`fSC\fS , @a"C\fApNNNHP?< NA\NuH@aa/a a Nu@0 9c^Nu| PC>$Error # ][Abort]\f.B &lX)K\)ld` lp ,BQjNup(NV)l g,vARC( g9CJ9|Lp!,N FPeNuA JpBQA/)H )l gBlJpNB Aprt0 0BBB R@ @efA000 0PB0 *00 000\0X0 *0000 0P0BX0, *@00p1| 1|QBX0 $HTH0P &0 *0,NupNSk [0NupNuHPaH8 _&X Pf/|~ K!zag @ ep 24C"2 S@ػ Td BTA3A0C4$I2a222B"0@2A\xvaRg<2#M 4B3BS@ -f ػ Td>BAAb8RGRC`3RSG5GC5C J1DcaRF F e`RG GcdNuXASF1F41R 1h4 x1EDgVA)H)H 9|J?<NNTU@g,ACg dRhdRh(gpL8Np>L8Np*HEAJ0?C bL000H?A/.)HpNLrHH/>Bl/,ff.f.ffNu l /.g&, ^`D&, N`>&, R`8&, V`2&, Z`,2,/4WAARA0,/6A hfRAS@f9A/,&, Jo ? CN0`@k Ap0(/.NuA Nup)@JphNLtH &JKBCH .A/~0 1PP1P1PA L? &<@>AFG0000X0000X0000X0000C ~AJ0g0  pi, N"F QNuYp-KNu"l`Yd&-KNN"l`YepN&#k"C-KN"Cփk փk2##`փk"`2`& $Y8gHRDD*D%H8#$c2g# HRDD%H`pr`&AdRd QJBgRBBABJk"l` d&6&|0!NuN"l` epZNC ҳfHP0(N$W$RR@H`2Q"H _$l` dd" $X&0BP6Y&|Hg R@@%E ҳeHQ0)N~$_$RR@H`2QNu$Y 0P1@Hg R@@%NuN$l` epZN"X0gBPHR@@"D#Nu,jJj `BffAgb Jj 2$NuJjNu)H,Bl0NuE+000 l,N0l0oNxNuaNjHP l,"X42,0Rl0Bd1 _g !g &g, \g2Np`Rl01` _NJ@fp NpNp _N NxpR@RABd 1\fRA9A0 _/N"@cԒ@H/Nx N(p?Np _Np%NpLNH l,"X42,0Rl0Bd1 _g,vxz| +g. -g( *g $g" #g Np`Rl01`` `RCRABd1 _fRA` #g $g *g ,g ^gB +gZ -gT .fRxRDRABdH1 #g ^g +g. -g( _f&RA`RERABd1 ^g +g -f2ALH@NުL8"aC " Lx2DE A,b -fEt1BQt1$0000QE[JEft Q0JgE\J"f0J"ff JFj-Sg$E[JEgRE\JEg vJ*g RCJ*f~ g~*Jf`9I0`JEf@RANߌE[JEg*ÒEA, gSAR`Ô l,HQ?HjSl0 l,"X0Rl0gL _g0 ,g .g +g( -g $_HRNp`$W "0d`Rl0`p Jojp-`Sl0NupC툌NpC툒N?<NNT+@ -SfN5HxNX Program must be run in | MEDIUM RESOLUTION! |Switch to MEDIUM RESOLUTION.HPN OK r"_ NN?<b~N@pNDpNHpNLpkr?NprNp7"<NpNrpNF?<a?<5?<g?<5~N@?<Y?<5?<V?<5~N@?<?<7?<?<7~N@pNzpNprNp7"<NpNpNDpNHpNLphr$NpNrp5"<_NpNrpNFpNzpNprNphr*NpN < "<LNpNDpNHpNL <"<:NprDN <rNpNDpNHpNL <"<:Npr*N <rNpNF <"<:Npr5N <rNXpNDpNHpNL <"<:NpNrpNDpNHpNL <"<ANpNrpNDpNHpNL <"<:NprDN p"<NpNDpNHpNL <"<:Npr*N p"<NpNF <"<:Npr5N p"<NXpNzpNprNpNF?< ?<?<%?<~N@?< ?<?<%?<~N@pNDpNHpNL <"<ONprN <"<ANprNpNF <"<:NprHN p"<NXpNFpNzpNprN <"<>NpN <p"< N <"<>NpN < "< NpNzpNprNp0"<?N <"<N < "<NXpNDpNHpNLpg"<XNpNrpNzpNprN+|pANN -NNN&<x*<NjJBfNCNB BpAC:NA*NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNHvAC:NANA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNIrACFNANANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNHpp@pW?<?<NN\p"<NNloading "EARTH STRUCTURE" . . .4NNC:\SOL_RSCS\CTU.PRGnC퇪NNA:\SOL_RSCS\CTU.PRGnC퇤NAC|NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNJrACFNANANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNIpp@pW?<?<NN\p"<NN#loading "EARTH SIZE AND MASS" . . .4NNC:\SOL_RSCS\HSI.PRGnC퇪NNA:\SOL_RSCS\HSI.PRGnC퇤NAC|NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNKpACFNANANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNJpp@pW?<?<NN\p"<NN!loading "EARTH ORBIT FACTS" . . .4NNC:\SOL_RSCS\THO.PRGnC퇪NNA:\SOL_RSCS\THO.PRGnC퇤NAC|NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNLnACFNANANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNKpp@pW?<?<NN\p"<NN"loading "EARTH ORBIT MOTION" . . .NNC:\SOL_RSCS\EOM.PRGnC퇪NNA:\SOL_RSCS\EOM.PRGnC퇤NAC|NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNLAC:NAxNA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNLAC:NANA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNMAC:NANA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNMNAC:NAfRNA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNN ACFNANp"<NN"loading "MOON ORBIT DISPLAY" . . .NNC:\SOL_RSCS\NDI.PRGnC퇪NNA:\SOL_RSCS\NDI.PRGnC퇤NAC|NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNNACFNANp"<NNloading "PHASES" . . .NNA:\SOL_RSCS\ASE.PRGnC퇤NNC:\SOL_RSCS\ASE.PRGnC퇪NAC|NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNOpACFNANp"<NNloading "MONTHS" . . .NNC:\SOL_RSCS\NTH.PRGnC퇪NNA:\SOL_RSCS\NTH.PRGnC퇤NAC|NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNPdACFNANANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNOpp@pW?<?<NN\p"<NNloading "ECLIPSES" . . .NNC:\SOL_RSCS\CLI.PRGnC퇪NNA:\SOL_RSCS\CLI.PRGnC퇤NAC|NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNPAC:NANA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNPAC:NANA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNQACFNANANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNQLpp@pW?<?<NN\p"<NN!loading "PLANET COMPARISON" . . .4NNC:\SOL_RSCS\TCO.PRGnC퇪NNA:\SOL_RSCS\TCO.PRGnC퇤NAC|NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNR AC:NANA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNRBAC:NAxNA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNRzAC:NA\NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNRAC:NANA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNRAC:NANA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNSACFNANANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNSbpp@pW?<?<NN\p"<NNloading "SATURN". . .4NNC:\SOL_RSCS\ATU.PRGnC퇪NNA:\SOL_RSCS\ATU.PRGnC퇤NAC|NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNTAC:NANA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNTLAC:NAiNA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNTAC:NA!^NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNTAC:NAVNA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNTAC:NANA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNUACFNANp"<NN'loading "MOTIONS OF INNER PLANETS". . .4NNC:\SOL_RSCS\NNE.PRGnC퇪NNA:\SOL_RSCS\NNE.PRGnC퇤NAC|NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNV|ACFNANp"<NN'loading "MOTIONS OF OUTER PLANETS". . .4NNC:\SOL_RSCS\UTE.PRGnC퇪NNA:\SOL_RSCS\UTE.PRGnC퇤NAC|NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNVNXNA>NA퀨Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNZANpNDpNHpNLpA"<N <"<N pNFpA"<N <"<NpD"<N <"<NpN8pN?<|?< ?<A~N@?<_?<{?<i?<?~N@ANHmpMNn"_NJBfNnNN\ <"<,NpN <"<FNpa"<`NpN <"<FNp6"<NpN <"<Np&"<TNpN <"<NN@C톮NA톮NC톮NNN&<x*<NjpJBgp/HmpMNn"_NpJBgp$fNhNN\pNzpNprNp|"<pBrNNat times to 2 million mph. It4NpLrNNis the Solar Wind, constantly4NpVrNNspiraling outward in the Sun'sNp`rNNmagnetic field until it passesNpjrNNthe Earth's orbit. BeyondNptrNNthis, it experiences little4Np~rNNmagnetic interference from 4N <rNNthe Sun. The Sun loses a-N <rNNbout 3,000 tons of mass 4N <rNNeach hour in producing 4N <rNNthe Solar Wind!4NpNR <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNNANpNDpNHpNLpUrFNp NrpU"<Np NrpNFpNzpNprN?<F?<U?<F?<~N@?<?<U?<?<~N@ANHmpMNn"_NJBfN>NpNDpNHpNLpUrFNpNrpU"<NpNrpNFpNzpNprN?<F?<U?<F?<~N@?<?<U?<?<,~N@pNFpNDpNHpNLANHmpMNn"_NJBfNNptrN <"<yN pNzpNprNBg?<s?<?<s~N@pNzpNprNpNF?<?<r?<{?<r~N@pNRpc"<NN Photosphere4Npcr.NNCoronaNAPNHmDpMNn"_NJBfNNpNRNArNANNpNRp"<`NN Photosphere4Np"<NN ChromosphereNp2"<NNCoronaNpNRpNzpNprNpNF?<~?<?<?<~N@?<?< ?<?<~N@pNzpNprN?<?< ?<?< ~N@NpNFpNzpNprNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNNprN <"<NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNZNpNFpNzpNprNprN <"<yNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN?<?<?<y?<~N@?<?<?<{?<~N@NpNRpN8p rNNTHE STRUCTURE OF THE SUNNprNNOur Sun is a star, shining so 4Np$rNNbrightly that one should NEVER 4Np.rNNobserve it directly with the 4Np8rNNnaked eye. However, with the4NpBrNNproper use of modern observa-4NpLrNNtional devices, an abundanceNpVrNNof detail is revealed at itsNp`rNNsurface, the Photosphere. 4NpjrNNFrom surface firestorms weNptrNNsee as "granules" to theNp~rNNSunspots and ProminencesN <rNNshown at the bottom left,4N <rNNthe Sun has given up many4N <rNNof its secrets. Below 4N <rNNits fiery gaseous . . .4NpNRNpNRpN8prNNsurface is another matter.NprNNDirect observation of the Sun4Np$rNNcan delve no deeper than to its4Np.rNNsurface (the upper region ofNp8rNNthe Photosphere), through its4NpBrNNdual atmospheres (the CoronaNpLrNNand the Chromosphere). The4NpVrNNgaseous opaque surface con-4Np`rNNceals much below. Yet the 4NpjrNNstructure, composition andNptrNNtemperature of the innerNp~rNNSun have been deduced;N <rNNand scientists believeN <rNNthey understand the4N <rNNnuclear processes which4N <rNNfire the Solar furnace.4NpNRNpNRpN8prNNLet us explore this vast body:NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNprNNwhere despite pressures of .14Np$rNNtrillion kilograms of matterNp.rNNon each square centimeter,NNDprNNwhere despite pressures of aNp$rNNtrillion pounds of overlyingNp.rNNmatter on each square inch,4Np8rNNatoms preserve the ability of4NpBrNNa gas to move freely; where4NpLrNNall that keeps the core fromNpVrNNcollapsing into a solid isNp`rNNthe immense flow of energy!4NpNRpN8ptrNNNow, point to the name of4Np~rNNeach region and Click the4N <rNNLeft Mouse Button.NpNR <rNNWhen finished, Click on4N <rNNthe CONTINUE box.4NpNRNpNRpNDpNHpNLprNp2"<N prNpd"<N p`rN <"<N <rN <"<N pkrNpt"<N <rN <"<N pa"<Npj"<N pC"<NpL"<N NpNRpN8pr?NNTHE SUN'S CORENp$rNNIt is in the Core that the 4Np.rNNnuclear processes which power4Np8rNNthe Sun actually take place.NpBrNNHydrogen nuclei (protons) are4NpLrNNfused into helium at tempera-4NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNpVrNNtures of 14 million degrees C.Np`rNNHere, under pressures of .1 NpjrNNtrillion kg/square cm, 4.1NptrNNmillion tons of solar massN <rNNsurface 485,000 km away.NNpVrNNtures of 25 million degrees F.Np`rNNHere, under trillion pound perNpjrNNsquare inch pressures, 4.5NptrNNmillion tons of solar massN <rNNsurface 300,000 mi. away.4Np~rNNis converted EACH SECONDN <rNNinto energy. As powerful4N <rNNgamma rays, this energy N <rNNstreams toward the Sun'sNNpNRpN8pr/NNTHE RADIATIVE ZONENp$rNNThe Radiative Zone is a vastNp.rNNregion of very dense gases,4Np8rNNfiercely bombarded by the4NpBrNNgamma rays produced in theNpLrNNCore. The rays are repeat-4NpVrNNedly detoured on their wayNp`rNNsurfaceward, absorbed by theNpjrNNgases then re-emitted asNptrNNless energetic X-rays and4Np~rNNUV-rays. So numerous are4N <rNNthe detours that it may4N <rNNtake a parcel of energy4N <rNNover a million years to4N <rNNreach the Sun's surface.NNpNRpN8pr'NNTHE CONVECTIVE ZONE4Np$rNNEnergy emerging from the Radi-Np.rNNative Zone next encounters an4NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNPp8rNN125,000 km deep region whereNNˀp8rNN80,000 mile deep region where4NpBrNNgases can absorb heat rapidly4NpLrNNand begin to rise to the sur-4NpVrNNface. When the gases, pro-4Np`rNNpelled by simple convection,NpjrNNreach the Photosphere, they4NptrNNgive up their energy as the4Np~rNNlight and heat we perceive 4N <rNNon a sunny day. Then theyN <rNNsink to be reheated again4N <rNNand again in immense tur-4N <rNNbulent convective loops.NNpNRpN8pr7NNTHE PHOTOSPHERE4Np$rNNThe thin Photosphere, possiblyNANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNp.rNNless than 1,500 km in depth,NpVrNN1,000 km in diameter, trans-Np~rNNthis mottled 6,000 degree4N <rNNCentigrade surface, Solar4NNςp.rNNless than 1,000 miles deep,4NpVrNN600 miles in diameter, trans-4Np~rNNthis mottled 11,000 degreeN <rNNFahrenheit surface, Solar4Np8rNNforms the Sun's gaseous, near-NpBrNNopaque surface. Here vastNpLrNNfirestorms called "granules",4Np`rNNfer energy from the ConvectiveNpjrNNZone and radiate it as vis-4NptrNNible light and heat. On 4N <rNNFlares and Sunspots reg-N <rNNularly break forth in a4N <rNNcosmic fireworks display.4NNpNRpN8pr7NNTHE CHROMOSPHERENp$rNNThe Chromosphere is a semi-4Np.rNNtransparent layer of gasesNANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNp8rNNbetween 10,000 and 16,000 kmNN8p8rNNbetween 6,000 and 10,000 milesNpBrNNdeep. Here long fingers of4NpLrNNglowing gases called "spicules"4NpVrNNrise up from the PhotosphereNp`rNNlike turbulence-tossed sea-4NpjrNNweed, then recede minutes4NptrNNlater. From the Chromo-4Np~rNNsphere, gigantic fountainsN <rNNof gases are often ejectedN <rNNinto space as Solar Prom-4N <rNNinences, sometimes over4NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNV <rNN150,000 km long.NNԀ <rNN100,000 miles long.4NNpNRpN8prONN THE CORONANp$rNNThe Corona is the outer atmo-4Np.rNNsphere of the Sun, and extendsNANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNdp8rNNmillions of kilometers into4NNՐp8rNNfor millions of miles intoNpBrNNspace. It is so sparse,NpLrNNthat it is not visible except4NpVrNNwhen the rest of the Sun'sNp`rNNglare is eliminated duringNpjrNNSolar Eclipses. The Corona4NptrNNvaries in thickness, some-Np~rNNtimes being broken by4N <rNN"coronal holes" through4N <rNNwhich unusually intense4N <rNNSolar Winds escape. 4NN <"<NN'THE MYSTERY OF THE CORONA'S TEMPERATURENANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNt <r"NNGFrom the 14 million degree Centigrade solar Core, the Sun's temperatureN <r"NNCgradually decreases to 6,000 degrees at the Photosphere. According4NN, <r"NNGFrom the 25 million degree Fahrenheit solar Core, the Sun's temperature4N <r"NNDgradually decreases to 11,000 degrees at the Photosphere. AccordingN <r"NNGto the second law of thermodynamics, that heat cannot be conducted from4N <r"NNCcooler to warmer, the Sun's temperature should continue to decrease4N <r"NNBbeyond the Photosphere. But at the Corona, a mystery occurs . . .NpNR <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNNjpNDpNHpNLpwr N <"<zN pNR <r"NNGIn defiance of the second law of thermodynamics, the Corona is actually4N <r"NNFhotter than the Photosphere. How the Corona is heated is a mystery toN <r"NNFsolar astronomers; but dynamic magnetic fields or even acoustic energyN <r"NNFare suggested as possible explanations. By the time you run this pro-N <r"NNCgram this mystery may have been solved. Better yet, you may be the4N <r"NN,astronomer who finally discovers the answer!NpNR <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NNNpNDprN <"<N pNDpA"<NpnNrpNzpNprNpNFp9"<NprdN < N"<NXp"<Np r2N < N"<NXpa"<Np r2N < N"<NXpNRpF"<NN"Rotation at equator . . . 27 daysNp"<NN"Rotation at poles . . . . 34 daysNp/"<NN"Rotation at mid-latitudes. 29 daysNpNRpNzpNprNpNF?<?<?<?< ~N@?<?<z?<?<t~N@ANpNR <"<NN,HOW THE SUN'S STRUCTURE AFFECTS ITS ROTATIONN <r"NNGWith its equator inclined to the Ecliptic about 7, the Sun rotates on 4N <r"NNGits axis as do the other major bodies of the Solar System. However, as4N <r"NNHwe have seen, the Sun is a raging sphere of incredibly hot gases, so hotN <r"NNHthat no solids can exist on it. Being gaseous, different regions of theN <r"NNHthe Sun are free to rotate at different speeds. And this they do! . . .NpNR <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNNRpNDpNHpNLpwr N <"<zN pNzpNprNpNF?<?<z?<?<t~N@pNR <r"NNGThe Sun's equatorial regions rotate about once every 27 days at a speed4NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN <r"NNDof nearly 6,750 km per hour. Its polar regions however rotate at a NN| <r"NNGof nearly 4,200 miles per hour. Its polar regions however rotate at a 4N <r"NNGslower rate of only once every 34 days. This "differential rotation" 4N <r"NNGproduces a kind of atmospheric "slippage" or shear which is thought to 4N <r"NNEcontribute to the formation of sunspots. Incidently, the Sun's rota-4N <r"NN@tion was first measured by tracking sunspots across its surface.NpNR <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NNN\pp@pWBg?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\A NHmpMNn"_NJBfNNpNRpN8pNNpNrp4"<:NpNrp:"<;NpNrp2"<0NpNrANHmpMNn"_NJBfNBNpNDpNHpNLp6"<>NpNrp4"<:NpNrp:"<;NpNrANHmpMNn"_NJBfNNpNF?<.?<2?<1?<2?<1?<3?<.?<3~N@pxrNNJAfter many rotations (# 3.), the magnetic field lines are so distorted N <rNNFthat they finally break! Rupturing up through the photosphere, they N <rNNKform groups of sunspots. Sometimes this disruption of the Sun's magnet- 4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfN$N <rNNEic fields is so great that unusually large or long-lived sunspots are4N <rNNIable to form. In April 1947, the largest sunspot ever recorded swelled 4N <rNNGto a size large enough to swallow 100 Earths! While most sunspots dis-4N <rNNGappear after a few weeks, in 1840-1841 one was visible for study for 4N <rNNFa full eighteen months! NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNN <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NNA NpNRpN8p"<NNEruptiveNp"<NN ProminenceNpJ"<NNLoopNpR"<NN ProminenceN <"<NN Quiescent4N <"<NN ProminenceNpNRpN8p"<NN PROMINENCES4Np"<|NNAmong the most awe-inspiring Np&"<|NNsights imaginable are solar Np0"<|NNprominences, huge fountains ofNp:"<|NNgas which stream out from the NpD"<|NNSun's surface. The result of4NpN"<|NNpowerful magnetic fields near NpX"<|NNsunspots, they appear often o-NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNNpb"<|NNver sunspot areas. Due to theNpl"<|NNcomplexity of surrounding mag-Npv"<|NNnetic fields, prominences may4N <"<|NNdevelop as columns, arches or N <"<|NNeven loops! "Quiescent promi-N <"<|NNnences" are relatively calm, N <"<|NNand may hang like ribbon fila-N <"<|NNments for weeks above the Sun.N <"<|NN"Eruptive prominences" exhibitN <"<|NNmuch more violent behavior. . .4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNNp"<{N <"<vN pN8p"<|NNThey may jet from the Sun atNANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNtp"<|NNover 1,600,000 km/h, before dy-4NNp"<|NNover a million mph, before dy-Np&"<|NNing out hours later. The lar-Np0"<|NNgest prominence ever recorded4Np:"<|NNerupted June 4, 1946. In onlyNpD"<|NNhalf an hour, it had stretchedNANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN pN"<|NNmore than 400,000 km. Then atNpX"<|NNnearly 750,000 km/h, it contin-4NNrpN"<|NNover 250,000 miles. Then atNpX"<|NNhalf a million mph, it contin-Npb"<|NNued spaceward, finally extend-NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNNANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN ,pl"<|NNing over 1.5 million km fromNN `pl"<|NNing over a million miles from4Npv"<|NNthe Sun! That is more than 44N <"<|NNtimes the distance between theN <"<|NNEarth and the Moon! The prom-N <"<|NNinence had been watched for a4N <"<|NNnumber of months in a quies-N <"<|NNcent stage, though its tremen-N <"<|NNdously energetic outburst was4N <"<|NNover in less than 3 hours!N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN Np"<{N <"<vN pNRpN8p"<NNEruptiveNp"<NN ProminenceNpJ"<NNLoopNpR"<NN ProminenceN <"<NN Quiescent4N <"<NN ProminenceNpNRpN8 <rNN Solar Flare4NpW"<NNSolar4Np_"<NNFlare4NpNRpN8p"<NN SOLAR FLARESNp"<|NNSolar flares are seen as fan-4Np&"<|NNtastic flashes of light on theNp0"<|NNSun's surface lasting from aNp:"<|NNfew minutes to several hours.4NpD"<|NNLike prominences, they are as-NpN"<|NNsociated with sunspot activityNpX"<|NNand intense magnetic fields.Npb"<|NNTen times more brilliant than4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNNpl"<|NNthe normal solar surface, a4Npv"<|NNflare can release energies e-4N <"<|NNqual to over a billion atomic4N <"<|NNbombs! Moreover, they produceN <"<|NNvast amounts of high-energy N <"<|NNnuclear particles, hurlingN <"<|NNthem into space at speeds ofNANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN <"<|NNup to 4.3 million km/h! Reach-4NN <"<|NNup to 2.7 million mph! Reach-N <"<|NNing Earth, these particles. . .4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNNp"<{N <"<vN pN8p"<|NNgenerate aurorae above the po-Np"<|NNlar regions. And during par-4Np&"<|NNticularly strong flares, radioNp0"<|NNand electrical transmissionsNp:"<|NNcan be disrupted! During the4NpD"<|NNflare of August 2-7, 1972, aNpN"<|NN230,000 volt transformer explo-4NpX"<|NNded, circuit breakers wereNpb"<|NNtripped, and long distance tel-4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNNpl"<|NNephone filters were damaged4Npv"<|NNby resulting magnetic storms!4N <"<|NNThe flare was so powerful thatN <"<|NNif astronauts had been in4N <"<|NNspace at the time, they would4N <"<|NNhave been killed by its radia-N <"<|NNtion! Fortunately, flares of4N <"<|NNthis intensity occur only one N <"<|NNtime every few decades. . .4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN.Np"<{N <"<vN pNRpN8pNN(pnrxNp NrpirsNpNrps"<NpNrANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN(pkrNpr Npn"<TNprNps"<NNprN <"<;NprN <"<@NprNANHmpMNn"_NJBfN(N( <"<NpNr <"<NpNrpx"<NpNrp}"<NpNrpNDpNHpNLANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN( <"<:NprN <"<?NprN <"<NpNr <"<NpNrpLN(p]"<NpNrpf"<NpNrpg"<NpNrpj"<NpNrpm"<NpNrpn"<NpNrpd"<NpNrANHmpMNn"_NJBfN>N(pN8pNpNRpN8pN ( 1.3 million times volume of Earth )Np_rNN8 ( 332,270 times mass of Earth )NN@CDNADNCDNNUgNpMNnCDNHmDpMNn"_NJBfNN~pprNN7ROTATION PERIOD: TEMPERATURE:4NpyrNN< at solar equator: 27 days at core: N <rNN: at 45 latitude : 29.5 days at surface:N <rNN at solar poles : 34 days N <rNN+ESTIMATED VELOCITY AROUND GALACTIC CENTER: cN <rNN1INCLINATION OF SOLAR EQUATOR TO ECLIPTIC: 74N <rNNDISTANCE FROM EARTH:NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNpy"<NN 14,000,000 C4N <"<NN 6,000 C4N <"<NN1,019,000 km/hN <"<NN&149,700,000 km ( 1 astronomical unit )NNtpy"<NN 25,000,000 FoN <"<NN 11,000 F4N <"<NN 633,000 mph4N <"<NN(93,000,000 miles ( 1 astronomical unit )NpNRNzNANpNRpN8pN ( 1/1.3 million times volume of Sun )NpVrNNMASS: Np_rNN< ( 1/332,270 times mass of the Sun )NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNp(rtNN 12,756 km Np?rdNN1.09 trillion cubic kilometersNpVrdNN!1,235 billion billion metric tons4NNPp(rtNN 7,926 mileseNp?rdNN261 billion cubic milesNpVrdNN1,357 billion billion tonsNN@CDNA톮NCDNNUgN͈pMNnCDNN\HmDpMNn"_NJBfNͬNpmrNN=ROTATION PERIOD: REVOLUTION PERIOD:4NpvrNNG Sidereal Day: 23 hr 56 min Sidereal Year: 365d 6h 9m4NprNNH Solar Day: 24 hr 00 min Tropical Year: 365d 5h 49mN <rNN&INCLINATION OF ROTATIONAL AXIS: 23.5N <rNNFVELOCITY AROUND SUN: ORBITAL ECCENTRICITY: .017N <rNN%DISTANCE FROM SUN: mean distance:LN <rNN% nearest distance:4N <rNN% farthest distance:4NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN <"<NN 107,800 km/hN <"<LNN149,500,000 kilometersN <"<LNN146,670,000 kilometersN <"<LNN151,660,000 kilometersNN~ <"<NN 66,900 mphN <"<LNN92,900,000 milesN <"<LNN91,140,000 milesN <"<LNN94,240,000 milesNN@CDNA톮NCDNNUgNѶpMNnCDNN\HmDpMNn"_NJBfNNpNRNzNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNNpNRpN8pN?<ANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN>pN8pNp"<N <"<hN pN8pNN>pdrNN-by Galileo to be seas), and thousands of cra-4NpnrNN,ters formed by meteoroid impact. Other fea-NpxrNN0tures are also visible, though less spectacular.N <rNN- The largest lunar features are the 'maria'4N <rNN-(Latin for "seas"). They are great plains of4N <rNN-solidified dark basaltic lava that once oozed4N <rNNover the surface. N <rNN. The second-most conspicuous features . . .N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNN>pNDpNHpNLprN <"<N pN8prNN-on the Moon are its craters. Ranging in size4NprNN0from a few feet to over a hundred miles in diam-Np(rNN0eter, over 30,000 craters are visible from EarthNp2rNN/with a low-powered telescope. With the largest4NppdrNN/"the Apennines", etc. Their sizes, measured by4NpnrNN/studying the length of their shadows, appear to4NpxrNN(be similar in size to Earth's mountains.N <rNN0 Other lunar features include crevasses a halfN <rNN/mile across called "rilles", bright streaks ra-4N <rNN/diating from some craters called "rays", and an4N <rNN1ever-present layer of lunar dust, the "regolith".4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNxN>pNDpNHpNLprN <"<N p2"<N <"<N pNDpNHpNLARNڐ/AXNڐ"NpdrFNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN>pNFARNڐ/AXNڐ"NpdrFNpNzpNprNARNڐ/AXNڐ"NpdrFN < "<NXpNDpNHpNLARNڔ&<x*<NN/AXNڐ"NpZrpNFARNڔ&<x*<NN/AXNڐ"NpHr0NpNFARNڔ&<x*<NN/AXNڐ"NpPN <x"<NARNڔ&<x*<NN/AXNڐ"NpPN < "<NpNRpNDpNHpNL <r$<ARN|NN/ <r$<AXN|NN"NpNrpNDpNHpNL <r$<ARN|NN/ <r$<AXN|NN"NpNrpNDpNHpNL <r$<ARN|NN/ <r$<AXN|NN"Np NrpNF <r$<ARN|NN/ <r$<AXN|NN"NpN <r$<ARN|NN/ <r$<AXN|NN"NpNpNzpNprN <r$<ARN|NN/ <r$<AXN|NN"Np NpNFANHmpMNn"_NJBfN N> <ŀr$<H <r$<HA_FNHmpMNn"_NJBfN NN> <Ӏr$<H <r$<HA_FNHmpMNn"_NJBfN N> <׀r$<H <r$<HA_FNHmpMNn"_NJBfN N> <r$<H <r$<HA_FNHmpMNn"_NJBfN!8N> <Àr$<H <r$<HA_FNHmpMNn"_NJBfN!N> <܀r$<H <r$<HA_FNHmpMNn"_NJBfN!N>ARNڔH <r$<HA_FNHmpMNn"_NJBfN"N>ARNڔ&<x*<NH <r$<HA_FNHmpMNn"_NJBfN"vN>pNDpNHpNLpd"<Np rNpD"<ZNp rN <rNANHmpMNn"_NJBfN"N>pD"<YNprN p"<NAN <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN#N>pNDpNHpNLpN8pN?<?<Y?<?<aAB" NpY"<Npa"<N p`"<NNMARIA4N <"<zN <"<N <"<|NNMANTLEN <"<.N <"<N ANHmpMNn"_NJBfN$N> <"<0NN MOONQUAKESNp"<NN ATMOSPHEREN?<?<?<?<'A" Np"<Np'"<N p&"<NNCRATERS4Np#"<DNNCRUST4NpE"<NNMASCONS4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfN%N>?<?<?<9?<AH" N <"<N <"<9N <"<NNRAYSNprNNNow, let us examine more close-4NprNNly the first stepping-stone inNp$rNNour journey to the far reachesNp.rNNof the Solar System. A barren,4Np8rNNscarred, ancient world that soNpBrNNfired the imagination of man-4NpLrNNkind during Project Apollo,4NpVrNNit still has secrets to reveal,4Np`rNNand beckons our return.4NpN8ANHmpMNn"_NJBfN($N>ptrNNNow, point to the name of eachNp~rNNregion or feature and Click N <rNNthe Left Mouse Button.NpN8 <rNNWhen finished, Click on the4N <rNN CONTINUE box.hNNzN@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgN)FpMNnC톮NHmpMNn"_NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NjpJBgp$VHgN7TNN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<̀x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NjpJBgp$fN+A?N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HAjNA?8NNzNN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*< NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NjpJBgp$fN-A?N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HAjNABNNzNN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<Հx*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NjpJBgp$fN.A?N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HAjNAFNNzNN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NjpJBgp$fN0A?N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HAjNAINNzNN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*< NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NjpJBgp$fN1xA?N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HAjNAM.NNzNN&<x*< NpJBgp/NN&<x*< NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NjpJBgp$fN2A?N <r$< H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HAjNAQ,NNzNN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*< NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NjpJBgp$fN4dA?N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HAjNA[NNzNN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NjpJBgp$fN5A?N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HAjNATNNzNN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NpJBgp/NN&<x*<NjpJBgp$fN7PA?N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HAjNAXNNz`HmpMNn"_NJBfN7tN>pNR <r^N <"<N pNR <r^N <"<N pNRANHmpMNn"_NJBfN7N>A?NHmpMNn"_NJBfN8N>?<?<A"N?<?<YAB"N?<?<AH"NANHmpMNn"_NJBfN8rN>pNDpNHpNLp"<Np"<?N ARNڐ/AXNڐ"NpdrFNpr N <"<N ANHmpMNn"_NJBfN8N>ANHmpMNn"_NJBfN9(N>pNDpNHpNLpUrxNp NrpU"<Np NrpNFANHmpMNn"_NJBfN9N>pNzpNprN?<x?<U?<x?<~N@?<?<U?<?<~N@pNDpNHpNLpUrxNpNrpU"<NpNrANHmpMNn"_NJBfN:&N>pNFpNzpNprN?<x?<U?<x?<H~N@?<?<U?<?<~N@ANHmpMNn"_NJBfN:N>pN8ANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN:p"<"NN+137CNpK"<NN-190CNN;6p"<"NN+279FNpK"<NN-310FNpdrTNN Dark Side4Npd"<NN Sunlit Side4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfN;N>ptrNN SURFACE TEMPERATUREN <rNN2The Moon's surface temperature varies greatly. OnN <rNN2the dark side, exposed to the cold of space, Moon-NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN< <rNN2rocks freeze to a temperature of -190C! The sun-NN= <rNN2rocks freeze to a temperature of -310F! The sun-NANHmpMNn"_NJBfN=DN> <rNN/lit side is baked by the unhindered rays of the4NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN= <rNN1Sun, and reaches temperatures of +137C. This is4NN>D <rNN1Sun, and reaches temperatures of +279F. This is4N <rNN-higher than the boiling temperature of water!4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NBmVBm\ANNANpNDpNHpNLpr N <"<N NANHmpMNn"_NJBfN?bNBprNN THE MOON'S CORE NprNNThough there is agreement that 4Np$rNNthe Moon has a Core, there is Np.rNNmuch debate about its proper-4Np8rNNties. It is generally agreed4NpBrNNthat the Core is not quite at NpLrNNthe center of the Moon, but 4NpVrNNrather displaced toward the4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNA NBp`rNNEarth due to gravitational for-4NpjrNNces. While the Moon's gravityNANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNAptrNNsuggests a Core 1,000 km in4NNAptrNNsuggests a Core 600 miles inNp~rNNdiameter, seismometers left byN <rNNApollo astronauts suggest one4N <rNNonly 60% of that size. Geolo-N <rNNgists do not agree on if it isN <rNNiron NOR if it is liquid! NNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNC"NFprNN THE LUNAR MARIA 4NprNNThe lunar Maria are vast dark Np$rNNplains where molten lava flowed4Np.rNN and hardened. Evidence from theNp8rNNApollo missions suggests that NpBrNNthe lava was about the consis-NpLrNNtency of crankcase oil, and NpVrNNit stopped flowing about 3 bil-4Np`rNNlion years ago after filling in4NpjrNNlow-lying areas. The Maria are4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNE6NFANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNEptrNNas deep as 4.8 km and are asNNEptrNNas deep as 3 miles and are as4Np~rNNdark as volcanic obsidian onN <rNNEarth. They cover almost halfN <rNNof the Moon's near side yet4N <rNNalmost none of its far side,N <rNNproducing a "two-faced" Moon.4NNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNFNIprNN THE LUNAR MANTLE 4NprNNBelow the Moon's solid crust 4Np$rNNis a twin-zoned region, known4Np.rNNas the lunar Mantle. While4Np8rNNnear the crust it consists of4NpBrNNsolid rock that resembles ba-4NpLrNNsalt, evidence suggests a zoneNpVrNNnearer the core where the Man-Np`rNNtle becomes more plastic andNpjrNNthen molten. Apollo seismom-4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNHNIptrNNeters have detected "moon-Np~rNNquakes" deep in the lunar in-4N <rNNterior, which are consistentN <rNNwith a molten zone near the N <rNNbottom of the Mantle.4NNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNJNM*prNN MOONQUAKESNprNNAlthough 3,000 moonquakes occur4Np$rNNeach year, this is surprisingly4Np.rNNless than 1/100 the annual num-4Np8rNNber of Earthquakes. Many are4NpBrNNcaused by rock shifting deepNpLrNNinside the Moon, and happen4NpVrNNwhen the Moon is nearest theNp`rNNEarth. This suggests they areNpjrNNcaused by tidal stresses on4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNLNM*ptrNNthe Moon. Shallow moonquakes4Np~rNNseem to happen at sunset or4N <rNNsunrise locations, caused byN <rNNthermal forces. The averageN <rNNmoonquake releases only asN <rNNmuch energy as a firecracker!4NNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNMXNQ(prNN MOON CRATERS4NprNNThe parts of the Moon not blan-4Np$rNN keted by marias are covered withNp.rNN Craters. These circular depres-Np8rNN sions resembling bomb explosionsNpBrNNare believed to have been pro-NpLrNNduced mostly by the impact of4NpVrNNmeteoroids during the Moon'sNp`rNNearly history. Later, flowingNpjrNNlava of the lunar seas coveredNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNO`NQ(ptrNNup large crater basins. TheNp~rNNlargest craters are often known4N <rNNas "walled plains", their walls4N <rNN crater floors. Some craters areNANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNP <rNNsometimes rising 3.2 km above4N <rNNmore than 240 km in diameter!4NNQ( <rNNsometimes rising 2 miles aboveN <rNN more than 150 miles in diameter!NNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNQVNTprqNNRAYSNprNNRadiating from some craters are4Np$rNNbright streaks called "Rays".4Np.rNNThey are most prominent aroundNp8rNNcraters formed more recentlyNpBrNNby meteoroids impacting intoNpLrNNthe lunar seas. The Rays are4NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNSpVrNNsometimes 8 to 16 km wide, ex-Np`rNNtending hundreds of kilometersNNSrpVrNNsometimes 5 to 10 miles wide,4Np`rNNextending hundreds of miles4NpjrNNfrom their crater. They ap-NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNSNTptrNNpear to be flat because theyNp~rNNcast no shadows, suggesting4N <rNNthey may be made of lighter-N <rNNcolored rock and dust thrownN <rNNup from below the darker mariaN <rNNafter an explosive impact.NNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNUNXprINNTHE LUNAR CRUSTNprNNThe solid lunar Crust, made ofNp$rNNanorthosites (light-colored4Np.rNNrocks resembling granite), is Np8rNNnot uniformly thick! While4NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNVPpBrNNmerely 64 km thick on the4NNV|pBrNNonly 40 miles thick on theNpLrNNMoon's near side, it is about4NpVrNNtwice that on the far side!4Np`rNNThis displaces the Core and NpjrNNMantle toward the Earth, andNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNW`NXptrNNis caused by the Earth's grav-Np~rNNity. The extra thickness onN <rNNthe far side has retarded the4N <rNNflow of basaltic lavas to the4N <rNNlunar surface, thus explainingN <rNNthe far side's lack of maria.4NNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNXN[priNNMASCONS NprNNTelemetry from the first LunarNp$rNNOrbitor spacecrafts revealedNp.rNNslight changes in their orbits.4Np8rNNThese were caused by unusual NpBrNNconcentrations of mass belowNpLrNNthe surface. Many of these4NpVrNNMascons were found to lie under4Np`rNNMaria, and oddly their effectsNpjrNNseem proportional to the size4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNZN[ptrNNof the Maria above them. En-4Np~rNNgineers corrected the orbitsN <rNNof Apollo missions to allow for4N <rNNthe Mascons; but whether they N <rNNare high-density magma or bur-N <rNNied meteorites is unresolved.4NNANHmpMNn"_NJBfN\ N_BprANNTHE LUNAR ATMOSPHERENprNNThough the Moon has no true at-4Np$rNN mosphere, Apollo instruments de-Np.rNNtected traces of helium, argon,4Np8rNNhydrogen, neon and other gasesNpBrNNbelieved to originate in theNpLrNNSolar Wind. Other evidence4NpVrNNsuggests that the Moon also4Np`rNN occasionally releases gases fromNpjrNN its interior. However, the weakNANHmpMNn"_NJBfN^N_BptrNNlunar gravity cannot hold them.4Np~rNN Without a protective atmosphere,N <rNN the Moon's surface is constantlyN <rNNpulverized into dust (the lunar4N <rNNregolith) by the impacts of4N <rNNlarge and small particles.NNLA$NNLANNpNzpNprN <r$<AN|NN?A$Nڐ?ANڔ&<x*<NN?A$Nڐ?~N@ANڐ? <r$<A$N|NN?ANڐ?A$Nڔ&<x*<NN?~N@ <r$<AN|NN? <r$<A$N|NN?ANڔ&<x*<NN?A$Nڔ&<x*<NN?~N@ANڔ&<x*<NN? <r$<A$N|NN? <r$<AN|NN?A$Nڔ&<x*<NN?~N@pNzpNprNNLANNLANNLANNLANNLANNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNaNbpNFpNzANڐNprNANڐ/ANڐ"NANڐ/ANڐ"N < "< NXNLANNLANNLANNLANNLANNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNbzNcrZNpZNrANHmpMNn"_NJBfN{*NpNDpNHpNLp#"<:NpNrpNFpNzpNprNp<"<Np"<N <"< NXANHmpMNn"_NJBfN{Np9"<Np"<N < "<NXpN8pN <"<4NN3,700 kilometers per houraN <"<|NN384,400 kilometersN <"<|NN364,300 kilometersN <"<|NN407,100 kilometersNN <"<4NN2,300 miles per hourN <"<|NN 239,000 miles4N <"<|NN 226,400 miles4N <"<|NN 253,000 miles4NpNRNzNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNNpNRpN8pNBut during the night, 12 hours later, when his position on theN <r,NN=Earth had rotated under the Moon, the high tide would be much4N <r,NN'lower, due to inclination of the Earth.lNpNzpNprNpNFAFNڐ/ALNڔ&<x*<NN"Np"<N <@"<NXpNFANHmpMNn"_NJBfNpN̘ <r$<AFN|NN? <r$<ALN|NN?AFNڔ&<x*<NN? <r$<ALN|NN?~N@ <r$<AFN|NN? <r$<ALN|NN?AFNڔ&<x*<NN? <r$<ALN|NN?~N@A\NHmpMNn"_NJBfNN̘pNzpNprNpNFAFNڐ?ALNڐ?AFNڔ&<x*<NN? <r$<ALN|NN?~N@ <r$<AFN|NN? <r$<ALN|NN?AFNڔ&<x*<NN? <r$<ALN|NN?~N@ <r$<AFN|NN? <r$<ALN|NN?AFNڔ&<x*<NN?ALNڔ&<x*<NN?~N@ANHmpMNn"_NJBfNPN̘pNzpNprNpNFAFNڐ?ALNڐ? <r$<AFN|NN?ALNڔ&<x*<NN?~N@pNzpNprNAFNڔ&<x*<NN?ALNڔ&<x*<NN?AFNڔ&<x*<NN?ALNڔ&<x*<NN?~N@ <r$<AFN|NN/ALNڔ&<x*<NN"NpSNnNAFNڔ&<x*<NN/ <r$<ALN|NN"NpNNnNpN8pNEarth, the tides do behave according to the stated principles.Np(r,NN@However, in reality land masses get in the way of the moving Np2r,NN@tidal bulges, sometimes to a very striking effect. N <r,NNAEspecially where the tidal flow of water is funneled into a 4N <r,NN?narrow or V-shaped inlet, the difference between high tides and4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfN&N̘ <r,NNClow tides will be large. The Bay of Fundy, between Nova Scotia 4N <r,NNDand New Brunswick, experiences tides that will sometimes exceed NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN\ <r,NNB15 meters! For similar reasons, many places on Earth may only ex-NN <r,NN@50 feet! For similar reasons, many places on Earth may only ex-N <r,NNIperience one high tide a day, instead of the usual two. 4N <r,NNF N <r$<HALNڔH <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNN̘pNDpNHpNLprN <"<:N pN8pNnet result will occur billions of years in the future . . . NA̮NA\NHmpMNn"_NJBfN.N̘HmpMNn"_NJBfNNN̘ <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNN̘pNDpNHpNLp"<\Np3"<BN pxr+N <"<aN pN8pNthough the Sun is so much more massive, it is so far away thatNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN̘ <r,NNAthe solar tidal forces are less than half as strong as those pro-4N <r,NNBduced by the Moon. As indicated in this display (greatly exagger-N <r,NN@ated in scale), the tides follow the Moon and not the Sun. NNpN8pr,NNETwice every month the Sun and Moon work in unison to produce high- 4Npr,NNAer than usual tides. These occur 1) when the Sun and Moon are on4Np&r,NN=opposite sides of the Earth, and 2) when they are on the same4Np0r,NN>side. Tides occurring at these times are called SPRING TIDES Np:r,NN@because they "spring forth", and are 20% higher than normal. Npr,NNETwice every month the Sun and Moon work in unison to produce high- 4Npr,NNAer than usual tides. These occur 1) when the Sun and Moon are on4Np&r,NN=opposite sides of the Earth, and 2) when they are on the same4Np0r,NN>side. Tides occurring at these times are called SPRING TIDES Np:r,NN@because they "spring forth", and are 20% higher than normal. NNN@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgN pMNnC톮NpN8p"<TNNAt other times of theaNp"<TNNmonth, the Moon and Sun Np("<TNNare at right angles withNp2"<TNNrespect to the Earth, Np<"<TNNand their forces tend4NpF"<TNNto have a canceling ef- NpP"<TNNfect. High tides are4NpZ"<TNNabout 20% lower than Npd"<TNNnormal, and low tides4Npn"<TNNare about 20% higher Npx"<TNNthan normal. The 4N <"<TNNtides which occur at N <"<TNNthese times are known4N <"<TNNas NEAP TIDES.NNpN8pNup" again with the moving tides. Therefore, the time between N <r,NNAsuccessive high tides is about twelve and a half hours. 4NNpN8pNSimilarly, there is evidence that the Earth's tidal effects onN <r,NN@the Moon contribute to increased moonquake activity! NNpN8pN <"<NN ASTEROIDS4"<NpN8pNpNDpNHpNL <"<N <"<XN pN8pN <r"NNEand predicted that a planet should exist between the orbits of Mars 4N <r"NNJand Jupiter. Many astronomers were skeptical. But in 1781 when Uranus N <r"NNIwas discovered, its orbit adhering to Bode's Law, there began a fervent 4N <r"NNdsearch for the "missing planet" between Mars and Jupiter. . . NNz <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNN>pN8 <r"NNGOn New Year's Day of 1801, the first asteroid, CERES, was discovered in N <r"NNJthe predicted region. Since Ceres was assumed to be the missing planet, N <r"NNHit was a surprise when a second asteroid, PALLAS, was discovered in 1802N <r"NNGin the same orbital region. It was only natural to surmise that if two4NANN\HmpMNn"_NJBfNN> <r"NNIminor planets could exist in the region, so might others! And thus an 4N <r"NNMearnest search began for more. JUNO was discovered in 1804, followed by 4N <r"NNLVESTA in 1807. Thirty-eight years later, a fifth asteroid was found. N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNlN>pN8 <r"NNHBy 1890, more than 300 asteroids had been discovered! But the count N <r"NNIwas not to end here. The very next year, photography was introduced as 4N <r"NNKa method of "asteriod-searching", and by 1986 more than 3,450 had been 4NANN\HmpMNn"_NJBfNN> <r"NNHfound! Estimates put the total number of asteroids at more than 30,000!N <r"NNHYet even for their great numbers, because most are so very small, their N <r"NNJtotal combined mass is estimated to be considerably less than the mass N <r"NNJof our own Moon! N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNN>NpN8pNpbrNNteroids to make one revolutionNplrNNaround the Sun ranges from 4NpvrNN3.5 to about 6 years. TheN <rNNaverage eccentricity of their4N <rNNorbits is 0.15, similar to 4N <rNNthe average of the orbits of 4N <rNNthe major planets! But these4N <rNNare just AVERAGES . . .. 4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN N>pN8pNplrNNorbit stretches from inside4NpvrNNthe Earth's orbit to beyond4N <rNNthe orbit of Mars! HIDALGO's4N <rNNorbit stretches nearly out to4N <rNNSaturn! Of particular inter-4N <rNNest are those asteroids known4N <rNNas the EARTH-GRAZERS. . . 4NpNFpNzpNprNAl 0 <r$<&<@x*< AlN0N@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgNpMNnC톮NN\HmpMNn"_Ng NN2AlNڔ&<.8<*<NRApNFAl 0 <r$<&<x*< AlN0N@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgNpMNnC톮NN\HmpMNn"_Ng NNAlNڔ&<.8<*<NRA <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNN>pN8pNplrNNhad it hit, it could have doneNpvrNNthe damage of thousands of H-4N <rNNbombs! Plus, it is due back N <rNNin 2015! Thus, spacecraft mayN <rNNneed to be sent to divert suchN <rNNdangerous rogue asteroids intoN <rNNsafer orbits! 4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNN>NpN8pNpcr#Np.riN<+| <ANNN@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgNpMNnC톮NN\HmpMNn"_Ng NN -NNN&<x*<NjJBfN@pNFNFpNF <r$<NVANNڨ <r$<NVANڨANNڔ&<x*<NHANڔNL8N&<x*<NANڨANNڔ&<x*<NHANڔNL8N&<x*<N&<3338<4*<N&<x*<NANڨANڐ?ANڐ?~N@ <r$<AN|NN?ANڐ?~N@ANڔ&<x*<NN?ANڐ?~N@N`NqHmpMNn"_NJBfNN>pNFpNzp NprNpcr#NpY"<Npcr#NpP"<Npcr#NpF"<NpNFpNDpNHpNLpc"<'NpNrpNzpNprN?<i?<A?<i?<B~N@pNFANN\HmpMNn"_NJBfNDN>pAriNpNpc"<'NpNpN8pNpe"<_NN#pull slightly deflects anything in 4Npo"<_NN$orbits which have certain fractionalNpy"<_NN periods of its own. This slightN <"<_NN$deflection year after year has even-N <"<_NN$tually cleared the gaps. The same N <"<_NN$effect is seen where the gravities N <"<_NN$of Saturn's moons have created the N <"<_NN$gaps in Saturn's magnificant rings. NpNDpNHpNL <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN""N>pNDpNHpNLpcr#N <Nrp"<^N <"<N pNDpNHpNLpcr#NpNrANN\HmpMNn"_NJBfN"N>pNzpNprNpNF?<#?<c?<"?<c~N@?<?<?<#?<c?<?<~N@pNDpNHpNLANN\HmpMNn"_NJBfN#>N>p"<NpNr <"<NpNr+|p2ANNANN\HmpMNn"_Ng NN$ -NNN&<x*<NjJBfN#pNFN#pNF <r$<NVANNڨ <r$<NVANڨANڔNANN|N&<x*<NANڨANNڔ&pN8pN <rNN(western group)4N <rDNNTrojans4NperNNSun4Np"<_NN$In 1772, the mathematician Lagrange Np#"<_NN$showed that there should be two lo- Np-"<_NN$cations on Jupiter's orbit, where Np7"<_NN$minor planets might collect. These NpA"<_NN$areas (60 in front of Jupiter and NpK"<_NN$60 behind it) are called "Lagrange NpU"<_NN$Points", and are points of stabilityNp_"<_NN$where objects can orbit unperturbed NANN\HmpMNn"_NJBfN(pi"<_NN$by Jupiter's gravity. By 1908, fourNps"<_NN$asteroids had been found where pre- Np}"<_NN#dicted; and now at least two dozen 4N <"<_NN$have been catalogued. Some astrono-N <"<_NN$mers estimate that there may be overN <"<_NN$700 rocky bodies preceding and fol- N <"<_NN$lowing Jupiter in its orbit! . . . N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN*dN>pN8p "<fNN Np"<_NN$The first asteroids found at the La-Np"<_NN$grange Points were named for Trojan Np#"<_NN$heroes of Greek mythology, and henceNp-"<_NN$both eastern and western groups are Np7"<_NN$collectively called THE TROJANS. NpA"<_NN$Today the protocol is to name the NpK"<_NN$eastern ones for Greek warriors and NpU"<_NN$the western ones for Trojan warri- NANN\HmpMNn"_NJBfN,N>p_"<_NN$ors. But this rule was not adopted Npi"<_NN$until after the first three were Nps"<_NN$catalogued. Thus there is one GreekNp}"<_NN$"spy" amid the Trojans, and one Tro-N <"<_NN$jan "spy" amid the Greeks! All os- N <"<_NN$cillate in very complicated motions N <"<_NN$around their stability points as N <"<_NN$they journey around the Sun! N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN.N>NN\ANN\HmpMNn"_NJBfN/.N>pp@pW?<?<NN\pNDpNHpNLp`"<hNppNDpNHpNL <"<hNp Nrp"<hNprNANN\HmpMNn"_NJBfN0.N>pNzpNprNpNF?<D?<)?<3?<)~N@pNFp"<dNp"<nNpNDpNHpNLANN\HmpMNn"_NJBfN0N> <"<6NprNp*"<NprNpNRpN8pNp"<YNNNysaNp5"<#NNHektorNp6"<nNNEunomia4NpNRpNzpNprNpNF <"<NpN <"<4NpN8pNpcrNNsimilarly varies. The most re-4NpmrNNflective is NYSA, while ARETHU-4NpwrNNSA is darker than a blackboard!4N <rNNThree-quarters of the asteroids4N <rNNare thought to be carbonaceous 4N <rNN(C-types) and fairly dark, like4N <rNNCERES and HEKTOR. About one 4N <rNNsixth of them seem to be . . .4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN6N>pN8pNpcrNNis HEKTOR, one of the Trojans. 4NpmrNNBecause of its varying light- 4NpwrNNcurve, HEKTOR is thought to be 4N <rNNpeanut-shaped! In fact, some 4N <rNNscientists suggest it might be 4N <rNNwhat is known as a "contact- 4N <rNNbinary", composed of two lobes 4N <rNNjust touching one another! 4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN:N>pN8pNpcrNNthe origin of the Solar System!4NpmrNNIf so, Jupiter's gravity has 4NpwrNNprevented them from accreting 4N <rNNinto larger body! As such, the4N <rNNasteroids may unlock secrets to4N <rNNour stellar origins, as astro- 4N <rNNnomers like yourself continue 4N <rNNto study them! 4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NANNpp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pNDpNHpNLprN <"<N pNFprN <"<NA퀢 0 <r$<A퀢NA퀢Nڔ&<x*<NN?BgA퀢Nڔ&<x*<NN??<~N@N`NqNqA퀢 0 <r$<A퀢NBgA퀢Nڔ&<x*<NN??<A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NN?~N@N`NqNqANHmpMNn"_NJBfN@N <rNpxrdN< <rNpx"<N< <rNpx"<N< <rNpx"<N< <rNpx"<,N< <rNpZ"< N< <rNpZ"<xN"<HNNSun: kgNpN"<HNNMoon: kgNp^"<HNNMercury: kgNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNXNpn"<HNNVenus: kgNp~"<HNNMars: kgN <"<HNNJupiter: kgNp>"<NNSaturn: kgNpN"<NNUranus: kgNp^"<NNNeptune: kgNpn"<NNPluto: kgNp~"<NNCeres: kgN <"<NNPhobos: gNN[xp>"<HNNSun: lbNpN"<HNNMoon: lbNp^"<HNNMercury: lbNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNZNpn"<HNNVenus: lbNp~"<HNNMars: lbN <"<HNNJupiter: lbNp>"<NNSaturn: lbNpN"<NNUranus: lbNp^"<NNNeptune: lbNpn"<NNPluto: lbNp~"<NNCeres: lbN <"<NNPhobos: ozNANHmpMNn"_NJBfN[Npr5NNYOUR WEIGHT ON OTHER WORLDSNp)rNNDrag the scroll bar below until4Np)"<NNitNp3rNN indicates your weight on Earth.Np=rNN!Your weight on the other various 4NpGrNNbodies of the Solar System will4NpQrNN!automatically be calculated. Now4Np[rNN!notice your weight on Phobos, one4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfN]DNperNN!of the moons of Mars. So weak is4NporNN its gravity, that on its surfaceNpyrNN your weight needs to be measuredNANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN^> <rNN!in grams, not kilograms! On the4NN^t <rNNin ounces, not pounds! On some4N <rNN"very small asteroids, you'd weigh N <rNN less than N <rhNpaNnN <rwNNfeather does on Earth!NpNRpN8pNN.A4Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfN.pNDpNHpNLprN <"<N A N <r$<H <r$<H <r$< H <r$<H <r$<HN PREVIOUS PAGEHPNEXITHP <r$<HAlNHmDpMNn"_NgNfA4Nڔ&<x*<NjJBgpp@pWBg?<NN\NpNzpNprNANNANpN8pNfrom Sun Revolution Rotation Velocity Axis MoonsNpE"<*NN(days)NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN.pE"<NN(km/h)NNJpE"<NN(mph)4NpW"<NN2 88.0 da 58.65 0 0Npc"<NN2224.7 da 243.00 -178 0Npo"<NN2365.2 da 1.00 23.5 1Np{"<NN2687.0 da 1.03 24.0 2NN@CDNADNCDNNUgNpMNnCDNHmDpMNn"_NJBfNN <"<NN*av 4.8 yr av 9.5NpN8pND <rNN3as hot as 620F. This is hotter than an oven! Yet4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfN>nNX <rNN3despite Mercury's nearness to the Sun, its slow ro-4N <rNN2tation gives its dark side plenty of time to cool.NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN?r <rNN1Dark side temperatures plunge to a frigid -212C!4NN? <rNN1Dark side temperatures plunge to a frigid -350F!4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN@NNLA8NNLA2NNpNzpNANڐ/ANڐ"Np CNp CN -NNN&<x*<NjJBfNYp CNp CNADNڔANN|NA퀢NڨAJNڔANN|NA퀮NڨBmBm@ <r$<&<x*<ANڔNL8NHANڔNA퀮N|NHA>NڔNL8NL8NA2N|NCNlANڐ/ANڔNA퀢N|NHA>NڔNL8NHANڔNA퀮N|NHA>NڔNL8NL8N&<3338<4*<NRA8N|NCNl -NNN&<x*<NjJBfN\ANڐ/ANڐCNCNlANڐ/ANڐCN&<x*<NCNlAN>N"`Nqp CArNx -NNN&<x*<NjJBfN\|p CArNxANAN -NNN&<x*<NjJBfN\ANANNN\pp@pWBg?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\ANpp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pNRA2 R0A8 F0pNDpNHpNLpc"<N <N <"< NpNzpNprNpNDpNHpNLpc"<Np^rNpBNrpNDpNHpNL <"<>NpAN < "<4NpNDpNHpNL <"<>NpEN < "<4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNrNpNRpN8pNA4Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNA4 0`HmpMNn"_NJBfNN|pNDpNHpNLpQ"<NprNpR"<NprNpd"<Npr NpNDpNHpNL <"<Np r(N <"<Np r(Np\"<NpNrp0"<NprNpY"<NprN <"<Npr Npd"<Npr NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN|pNDpNHpNLpx"<cNprNpD"<[NprN <"<Npr$N <"<Npr$N <"<Npr Npd"<NprNpNRpNFpNzpNprN <"<NpNpNF <"<Np r*N < "< NXpQ"<Npr N <"< NXpR"<Npr N p"<NXpNDpNHpNLpd"<NpZrNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN|pNRpN8pN"<Np:"<Np="<Np:"<N < "<NA퀢 @0 <r$<A퀢NN@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgNpMNnC톮NHmpMNn"_Ng NNA퀢Nڔ&<x*<NpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NpJBgp$fN̐pNRpNzpNprNpNFNpNRA퀢NڔNN&<x*<NjJBfNpNFNpNFA4NڐNz <r$<NV&<x*<NNNprNA퀢Nڔ&<x*<NjpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NjpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NjpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NjpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NjpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NjpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NjpJBgp/A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NjpJBgp$fNΊ <r$<NV&<x*<NNNzpNprNpNFA퀢Nڔ&<x*<NAJNڨAJNڔ&<x*<N &<ِx*< NN0&<z8<*<NA퀮NڨA퀮Nڔ&<x*<NA탐NڨA퀮Nڔ&<x*<NA탖NڨA탐Nڐ? <r$<A퀢N|NN?A탖Nڐ?A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NN?~N@A4N>A4Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNA4 0N`NqHmpMNn"_NJBfNN|pNFA퀢 0A퀢Nڔ&<x*<NL&<x*<A퀢N0 <r$<NV&<x*<NNNzpNprNp?"<NA퀢Nڔ&<x*<NNr;N <"< `NXN@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgNpMNnC톮NHmpMNn"_Ng NNN"`,NqHmpMNn"_NJBfN:N|pNFpT"<Np r"N <"< NXpNDpNHpNLpT"<Npr NpNFpNzpNprN <r$<&<x*<NN/ <r$<&<x*<NN"N <r$<&<x*<NN/ <r$<&<x*<NN"NbpNR <"<Np NrpNDpNHpNLpT"<NprNpNDpNHpNL <"<NprN <"<NprNpNzpNprNpNF <"<NpN <"<N <"<NbANHmpMNn"_NJBfNBN|pNRpN8pNA4Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNVA4 0`jHmpMNn"_NJBfNzN!PpNzpNprNpN8pNNipNDpNHpNLpUrxNp NrpU"<Np NrpNFANHmpMNn"_NJBfN>pNipNzpNprN?<x?<U?<x?<~N@?<?<U?<?<~N@pNDpNHpNLpUrxNpNrpU"<NpNrANHmpMNn"_NJBfN? NipNFpNzpNprN?<x?<U?<x?<M~N@?<?<U?<?<J~N@ANHmpMNn"_NJBfN?|NipN8ANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN?pM"<"NN-212CNpP"<NN-234CNN@pM"<"NN-350FNpP"<NN-390FNpdrTNN Dark Side4Npd"<NN Sunlit Side4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfN@Nipt"<NNSURFACE TEMPERATURE4N <rNN1Being so far from the Sun, Pluto is almost like a4N <rNN1"super-refrigerated" planet! Its average surface4N <rNN*temperature is believed to be only about -NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNA <"<iNN231C!NNA <"<iNN382F!NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNBNi <rNN0Some of the physicists among you might recognizeN <rNN2that this is not so very far from "absolute zero"!N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNC"NiNpp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pNFpNzpNprN?<?<?<k?<~N@?<?<r?<Bg~N@pNDpNHpNLp:"<Np|NrpNDpNHpNLp:"<Np{N < "<4NpNDpNHpNLp+"<N <N < "<4NpNDpNHpNL <"<NpNr <"<INp NrANHmpMNn"_NJBfNDNipNRpN8pNN@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgNZvpMNnC톮NNN&<x*<NjpJBgp/HmpMNn"_NpJBgp/HmpANn"_NpJBgp$VHgNZ`NHmpMNn"_NJBfN[NiANHmpMNn"_NJBfN[0Nipr NN THE ORBIT AND ROTATIONSNpr NN OF PLUTO AND CHARONNp!rNN The orbit of Pluto and Charon isNp+rNN!more eccentric or elongated than 4Np5rNNthat of any other planet. Thus4NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfN\p?rNN it varies between 4.42 "billion"NpIrNNand 7.38 "billion" km from theNN]p?rNN it varies between 2.74 "billion"NpIrNN!and 4.57 "billion" miles from the4NpSrNN#Sun. This brings the double planet4Np]rNN"closer to the Sun than Neptune forNANHmpMNn"_NJBfN]NipgrNN about 20 years of its orbit, (inNpqrNN the latest instance between 1979Np{rNN"and 1999!) But there is no dangerN <rNNof a collision with Neptune for4N <rNN two reasons. First, the double N <rNN planet's orbit crosses over Nep-N <rNN"tune's like a person crossing overN <rNN!another person on a bridge! . . .4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN_NipNDpNHpNLprN <"<N prNN!Second, the double planet's orbit4NprNN!is sychronised with Neptune's, so4NprNN they always stay well away from Np%rNN each other (See MOTIONS OF OUTERNp/rNNPLANETS.) In fact, Pluto and4Np9rNN Charon get closer to Uranus thanNpCrNN they get to Neptune, even thoughNpMrNN!Uranus is closer to the Sun! The4NpWrNNseeming contradiction is easily4NparNNexplained: the "orbit" of the4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNbNipkrNN"double planet DOES come closer to NpurNN!the "orbit" of Neptune. But when4NprNN"Pluto and Charon are in that part N <rNN#their orbit that is near Neptune's,4N <rNN!Neptune itself is far away in an-4N <rNN!other part of its orbit. Pluto's4N <rNN#and Charon's orbit is inclined 17.4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNdNipNDpNHpNLprN <"<N <rN <"<N <"<N <"<N prNN!As we have seen, Pluto and Charon4NprNN!orbit their barycenter once every4NprNN 6.39 days. And because they areNp%rNN "tidally locked" to one another,Np/rNN"they both rotate once in that sameNp9rNN!time period. Together they orbit4NpCrNN"the Sun once every 247.7 years; soNpMrNN#no one on Earth today has ever been4NpWrNN"around long enough to see two suc-NparNN!cessive "birthdays" of the double4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNfNipkrNN planet! So far away, the doubleNpurNNplanet has an average orbital4NprNN velocity around the Sun of only NANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNg <rNN!16,800 km/h. This is only 60% of4NNg <rNN 10,440 mph. This is only 60% ofN <rNN the velocity of a satellite thatN <rNNis orbiting the Earth!N <"<^NNRotational Period: 6.39 days4N <"<^NNOrbital Period: 247.7 yearsNANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNi <"<^NN Orbital Velocity: 16,800 km/hNNiN <"<^NNOrbital Velocity: 10,440 mph4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NNANNN\pp@pW?<?<NN\ANpp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pNRpNFpNzpNprNA2 R0A8 F0pNDpNHpNLpc"<N <N <"< NpNF+|pANN -NzpNprN -rcN -N&<x*<N&<x*<NNN -N&<x*<N&<x*< NN"< NANHmpMNn"_Ng NNkN`@NqHmpMNn"_NJBfNkNpNFpNzpNprNA( 0Bm2 <r$<NVA텾NڨA텾Nڔ&<x*<NJBfNl`pNFA4NڐNz <r$<NV&<x*<NNNprNA(Nڔ&<x*<NA(NڨN@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgNlpMNnC톮NA(Nڔ&<x*<NpJBgp/HmpMNn"_NpJBgp$VHgNoZA(Nڔ&<x*<NA퀢NڨA퀢Nڔ&<x*<N &< x*< NN0A퀮NڨA(Nڔ&<x*<NANڨANڔ&<x*<N HA퀮Nڔ&<x*<N L8NN0A:NڨANڔA퀮N|NLN&<x*<NHNhL8NL&<x*<NA@NڨA@Nڔ&<x*< NALNڨA텾Nڔ&<x*<NpJBgp/ANڔ&<x*<NpJBgp/ANڔ&<x*<NpJBgp$fNo A4Nڔ&<x*<NjJBfNoVA4 0`pNDpNHpNLpc"<Np^rNpNDpNHpNLprN <"<N pN8pNNqNpp@pWBg?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\N\AhNHmpMNn"_NJBfNN~pNRpNDpNHpNLp("<Np"<DNpNFp("<Np"<DNinsubstantial. Several times in recent history, the Earth hasN <r2NNpassed through one unharmed.N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNN~pNDpNHpNLpdr2N <"<SN p rNpF"<N pJ"<Np`"<N ANHmpMNn"_NJBfNNN~pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pNRpNDpNHpNLp2"<Np1"<XNpNFp2"<Np1"<XNComets have been called "dirty snowballs". A core of dry icesN <r2NN?and rock forms the "nucleus", usually small and irregular. For4N <r2NN>example, the nucleus of Halley's comet was found to be potato-NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN~ANڔ&<x*<NjJBfNh <r2NN>shaped: barely fifteen km long and eight km wide. The nucleusNN <r2NN>shaped: only nine miles long and five miles wide. The nucleusN <r2NN@is thought to be a remnant which survived the birth of the SolarN <r2NN>System virtually unchanged. Thus comets may contain importantN <r2NN*information regarding our stellar origins.NpNR <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN.N~pNDpNHpNLpZr Npn"<N pfr2N <"<SN p|r2NN@As the comet moves into the inner Solar System, the Sun's warmthN <r2NN?causes material in its nucleus to "evaporate" away, forming the4N <r2NN=COMA and the TAIL. The coma is the loosely defined "head" of4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN~ <r2NNCthe comet, and like the tail is composed of dust and ionized gases.4N <r2NN@The spacecraft which rendezvoused with Halley's comet found thisN <r2NN?material to leave the nucleus in "jets", rather than to evapor-4N <r2NN7ate from it uniformly, another surprise to astronomers!4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNhN~pNDpNHpNLpZr Npn"<N p`r2N <"<SN p|r2NN@The most spectacular part of the comet is its tail. Many cometsN <r2NNAhave two, one dust tail and one gas tail, which leave the nucleus4N <r2NN@at slightly different angles. This is due to slightly differentNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN~ <r2NN>"radiation pressure" on the two materials. Comet tails may beN <r2NN@huge. The Great Comet of 1843 possessed a tail whose length wasN <r2NNAgreater than the distance from the Sun to Mars! But as the comet4N <r2NNAleaves the inner Solar System, the tail shrinks, then disappears.4N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfNN~NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN~pNFpNzpNprNph"<NprN < "<NXph"<Np rN <"< NX <"<NprNN~pNzpNprNNN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pp@pW?<?<NN\pNFpd"<Np_rN < "<NXpd"<Np "<N <rNXpNFpd"<Np_rN <"< NXpd"<Np "<N <"<NXA퀢 0 <r$<A퀢NN@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgNЎpMNnC톮NHmpMNn"_Ng NNў <r$<NVANNڨ <r$<NVANڨANNڔ&<x*<NN:HANڔNL8N&<x*<NA탐NڨANNڔ&<x*<NHANڔNL8N&<x*<NANڨA탐Nڐ?ANڐ?~N@N`NqHmpMNn"_NJBfNѾN~A퀢 0 <r$<A퀢NN@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgNpMNnC톮NHmpMNn"_Ng NN* <r$<NVANNڨ <r$<NVANڨANNڔ&<x*<NN:HANڔNL8N&<x*<NA탐NڨANNڔ&<x*<NHANڔNL8N&<x*<NANڨA탐Nڐ?ANڐ?~N@N`NqHmpMNn"_NJBfNJN~pNFA퀢 0 <r$<A퀢NN@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgNӬpMNnC톮NHmpMNn"_Ng NNԼ <r$<NVANNڨ <r$<NVANڨANNڔ&<x*<NN:HANڔNL8N&<x*<NA탐NڨANNڔ&<x*<NHANڔNL8N&<x*<NANڨA탐Nڐ?ANڐ?~N@N`NqHmpMNn"_NJBfNN~A퀢 0 <r$<A퀢NN@C톮NA톮NC톮NNUgN8pMNnC톮NHmpMNn"_Ng NNH <r$<NVANNڨ <r$<NVANڨANNڔ&<x*<NN:HANڔNL8N&<x*<NA탐NڨANNڔ&<x*<NHANڔNL8N&<x*<NANڨA탐Nڐ?ANڐ?~N@N`NqHmpMNn"_NJBfNhN~pNFp["<Npm"<NbpNDpNHpNLpd"<NpNrpNDpNHpNLpc"<Npd"<N pNRpN8pg"<NNSun4Np<"<NNRadius: 1.5 light years4NpNFpNzpNprNp?"<Np?"<NbpNzpNprNp9"<NpE"<Nbp9"<NpE"<NbANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN~pN8p r"NNTHE OORT CLOUDNprNNAn incredible accumula-4Np#rNNtion of comets is thought4Np-rNNto exist in a huge spher-4Np7rNNical cloud 1.5 lightNpArNNyears from the Sun. This4NpKrNNis 2,500 hundred timesNpUrNNfarther from the Sun than4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfN@N~p_rNNPluto! The Oort Cloud is4NpirNNbelieved to be the home4NpsrNNof 100 BILLION comets,Np}rNNwith a total mass twice4N <rNNas great as that of Ju-4N <rNNpiter! Thus comets makeN <rNNup a sizable portion of4N <rNNthe Solar System's mass.N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NHmDpMNn"_NJBfN"N~pNDpNHpNLprN <"<N prNNAstromoners believe thatNprNNthe comets in the OortNp#rNNcloud are left over fromNp-rNNthe time when the matterNp7rNNcloser to the Sun formedNpArNNthe planets. From time4NpKrNNto time, some of theseNANHmpMNn"_NJBfNܘN~pUrNNcomets are "nudged" fromNp_rNNtheir orbits by the grav-4NpirNNities of passing stars.4NpsrNNSome may be pushed out of4Np}rNNthe Solar System. ButN <rNNothers may be urged sun-N <rNNward, eventually to beN <rNNseen by us from Earth.N <r$<H <r$<H <r$<HNCONTINUEHP <r$<HA4NpNDpNHpNLprN <"<N NANNp r"NNTHE OORT CLOUDNprNNAn incredible accumula-4Np#rNNtion of comets is thought4Np-rNNto exist in a huge spher-4Np7rNNical cloud 1.5 lightNpArNNyears from the Sun. This4NpKrNNis 2,500 hundred timesNpUrNNfarther from the Sun than4NANHmpMNn"_NJBfNN~p_rNNPluto! The Oort Cloud is4NpirNNbelieved to be the home4NpsrNNof 100 BILLION comets,Np}rNNwith a total mass twice4N <rNNas great as that of Ju-4N <rNNpiter! Thus comets makeN <rNNup a sizable portion of4N <rNNthe Solar System's mass.NNNLANNLANNLA탺NNLA탴NNLA탮NNLA탨NNLA탢NNLA태NNA태Nڐ9@A탢Nڐ9@A탨Nڐ9@A탮Nڐ9@A탴Nڐ9@A탺Nڐ9@ANڐ9@ANڐ9@pINؒNLA큶NN"_ArNLA큰NNLA큪NNLA큤NNA큼NHANHANHANHANHA2NHArNN&<x*<NvNBA큼NڨA큼NڔvNBA큤N|NANڨ <r$<A큪N|NANڨA큼NڔvNBA큤N|NANڨA큪Nڔ&<x*<NANڨpNDpNHpNLANڐ/ANڐ"NANڐ/ANڐ"N A큰NڐNFpNzpNprNANڐ/ANڐ"NANڐ/ANڐ"NA큶NڐN8pN > "r (( ( ($"( ( ( ( (( (( (( (( ( ( ( ( ( z( z( (( ( ( (( ( ( ( ( ( (( ( ( ( ( ( ( ((p< (X޶p8<4Dpւ&$|,&&,@&4Vz6"N|zfzdt @DXfnnnn@4t8brXJfnnF*DJ>X``, rX<F".:NT$08<6F\F2hp"""N$p6,2DNz. 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